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THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 

OF  CALIFORNIA 

LOS  ANGELES 


County  Government 
AND  County  Affairs 
IN  North  Carolina 


BY 


E.  C.  Branson  and  Others 


ADDRESSES     BEFORE    THE 

north  CAROLINA  CLUB 
AT  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF 
NORTH  CAROLINA,  1917-18 


Chapel  Hill.  N.  C. 
University  of  North  Carolina 

1918 


Copyright,  1918 
The  University  of  North  Carolin 
Chapel  Hill.  N.  C. 


k]^^h!o 


THE  NORTH  CAROLINA  CLUB 

YFAR  BOOK,  1917-1918 

UNIVERSITY  OF  NORTH  CAROLINA 


COUNTY  GOVERNMENT  AND  COUNTY  AFFAIRS 
IN  NORTH  CAROLINA 


550115 


CIVIC  RELIGION 


Is  there,  then,  anything  for  a  county  welfare  officer  to 
do?  There  is  more  to  do  that  ought  to  be  done  than  any 
ten  such  officers  can  do  in  any  county. 

And  fortunately  so;  it  gives  a  wise  officer  a  chance  to 
call  to  his  side  and  to  involTC  as  Tolunteers  in  his  purposes 
all  the  civic  and  social  minded  men  and  women  of  the 
county.  He  needs  them,  and  they  need  the  work,  and  in  it 
they  are  sure  to  find  the  more  abundant  life  that  the  Master 
came  to  earth  to  bring  to  the  sons  and  daughters  of  men. 

Suppose  we  had  in  every  county  of  North  Carolina  a  body 
of  closely  integrated  social  servants  composed  of  (1)  the 
school  board  with  its  superintendent  and  supervisors, 
(2)  an  agricultural  board  with  its  home  and  farm  extension 
agents,  (3)  a  public  health  board  with  its  whole-time  health 
officer,  its  public  health  nurses,  its  clinics  and  dispensaries, 
(4)  a  public  welfare  board  and  its  secretary  charged  with 
specific  social  concerns,  and  (5)  a  ministerial  board  com- 
posed  of  all  the  preachers  of  all  the  churches  busy  stamp- 
ing every  common  effort  with  the  ultimate  values  of  life 
and  destiny,  time  and  eternity — suppose,  I  say,  the  civic 
and  social  mind  of  North  Carolina  were  organized  and 
federated  in  tliis  way!  If  only  it  could  be  so,  and  it  can, 
then  what  an  era  of  democratic  wholesomeness  and  effec- 
tiveness we  should  enter  upon,  and  how  rapidly  our  beloved 
state  would  move  to  the  fore  in  the  new  social  order  that 

I         is  even  now  breaking  upon  the  world. 

I  Man  freely  self-surrendered  to  his  fellowkind  and  whole- 

heartedly given  in  organized  effort  to  the  common  good  is 
the  dream  we  dream.  Man  dedicated  to  the  state  is  Pms- 
sianism;  man  dedicated  to  humanity  is  the  soul  of  democ- 
racy; man  dedicated  to  humanity,  in  His  name,  is  the  last 
word  in  any  kind  of  religion  that  is  worth  calling  Chris- 
tian. The  Kingdom  of  Heaven  doubtless  means  much 
more  than  this,  but  I  am  sure  tliat  it  ought  never  to  mean 

I         less. — E.  C.  Branson,  an  address  before  the  N.  C.   Social 

I 
i 


Service  Conference. 


Table  of  Contents 

PAGE 

Foreword:   The  Jungle  of  County  Government 7 

E.  C.  Branson,  Professor  of  Rural  Economics  and  Sociology, 
University  of  North  Carolina. 

North  Carolina  Club,  1917-18:   Officers  and  Members 12 

The  County  in  North  Carolina:   Its  Origin,  Place,  and  Functions..     13 
J.  G.  deR.  Hamilton,  Alumni  Professor  of  History,  University 
of  Nor'th  Carolina. 

The  County  Government  System  in  North  Carolina 16 

Atwell  Campbell  McIntosh,  Professor  of  Law,  University  of 
North  Carolina. 

County  Offices  in  Carolina 28 

Judge  Gilbert  T.  Stephenson,  Winston-Salem,  N.  C. 

Forms  of  County  Government 36 

H.   S.  Gilbertson,  Secretary  National  Short  Ballot  Organiza- 
tion. 

Why  Not  Local  Self-Government  for  Rural  Communities? 41 

Dr.  Clarexce  Poe,  Editor  The  Progressive  Farmer,  Raleigh, 

N.  C. 

The  County  Tax  List  and  Its  Equalization 49 

Charles   Lee  Raper,    Professor  of  Economics,    University    of 

North  Carolina. 

A  Township  Tax-List  Study 60 

E.  C.  Branson,  Professor  of  Rural  Economics  and  Sociology, 
University  of  North  Carolina. 

The  Fee  and  Salary  Systems  in  North  Carolina 69 

E.  C.  Branson,  Professor  of  Rural  Economics  and  Sociology, 
University  of  North  Carolina. 

County  Finances  in  North  Carolina 80 

M.  S.  Willard,  Formerly  Chairman  of  New  Hanover  County 
Commissioners. 

County  Accounting:   Uniform  Systems  and  County  Budgets 92 

George  G.  Scott,  C.  P.  A.,  Charlotte,  Chairman  State  Board  of 
Accountancy. 

More  Intensive  Sui)ervision  of  Rural  Schools  in  North  Carolina..   104 

L.  C.  Brogden,  State  Agent  of  Rural  Schools. 
The  Evolution  of  County  Health  Work 114 

Dr.  W.  S.  Rankin,  Secretary  North  Carolina  State  Board  of 
Health. 


6  Contents 

PAGE 

County  Health  Work  in  North  Carolina 119 

Dr.  B.  E.  Washburn,  State  Director  County  Health  Work. 

Public  Health  Nursing  in  North  Carolina 128 

Dr.    L.    B.    McBrayer,    Superintendent,   North    Carolina    Sana- 
torium. 

The  County-Wide  School  System  in  North  Carolina 134 

Washington   Catlettt,    County    Superintendent    of   Schools    in 
Netv  Hanover. 

The  County  High  School 142 

N.  A.  Walkesi,  Professor  of  Secondary  Education,   University 
of  North  Carolina,  and  State  Director  of  Public  High  Schools. 
The  County  Library:  An  Agency  to  Promote  General  Reading.  .  .  .   144 
L.   R.   Wilson,   Director  Bureau   of  Extension,    University    of 
North  Carolina. 

Farm  Demonstration  Work  in  North  Carolina  and  the  South 149 

E.  S.  MiLLSAPS,  District  Agent,  Statesville,  N.  C. 

Home  Demonstration  Work  in  North  Carolina 154 

Mrs.  Jane  S.  McKimmon,  Home  Demonstration  Agent  for  the 
State,  Raleigh,  N.  C. 

Bridge-Building  in  North  Carolina 155 

W.  S.  Paxlis,  State  Highway  Engineer. 

County  Responsibility  for  Public  Welfare 160 

E.  C.  Branson,  Professor  of  Rural  Economics  and  Sociology, 
University  of  North  Carolina. 

County  Homes  and  Outside  Relief  in  Nortli  Carolina 169 

R.  F.  Be:aslet,  Secretary  of  the  State  Board  of  Public  Welfare. 

County  Care  of  Children 173 

Dr.  Hastings   H.  Hart,  Director  of  the  Department  of  Child 
Helping,  Russell  Sage  Foundation. 

Our  Feeble-Minded,  Elpileptic,  and  Insane 174 

Dr.  Albert  Anderson,  Superintendent  Central  Hospital  for  the 
Insane. 
Reference  Library  on  County  Government  and  County  Affairs 184 


Foreword:  The  Jungle  of  County  Government 

E.  C.  Beanson,  Professor  of  Rural  Economics  and  Sociology, 

University  of  North  Carolina. 

The  least  creditable  institution  in  America  today,  the  least  efficient 
and  most  wasteful,  the  thing  the  average  citizen  knows  least  about,  the 
matter  most  neglected  by  the  colleges  of  the  country,  the  Dark  Conti- 
nent of  American  politics,  the  Jungle  of  American  Democracy,  are  some 
of  the  phrases  in  common  use  about  County  Government  as  commonly 
found  in  the  3,200  counties  of  the  United  States. 

County  Government  is  without  ideals.  County  officers  serve  with  no 
Manual  of  Duties,  Responsibilities,  and  Procedures — except  in  a  bare 
half-dozen  states.  It  is  a  headless  affair,  uninformed,  unregulated, 
irresponsible,  and  governed  by  local  custom  mostly — regardless  of  law. 

The  subject  in  general  is  covered  by  no  body  of  organized  informa- 
tion; it  has  developed  no  science;  and  no  courses  on  County  Govern- 
ment are  offered  by  any  American  college  or  university — so  far  as  we 
know. 

And  so  the  North  Carolina  Club  at  the  University  of  North  Carolina 
is  this  year  venturing  into  this  unexplored  territory.  The  purpose  of 
the  members  is  competent  acquaintance  with  county  affairs  and  effec- 
tive citizenship  in  their  home  communities. 

Huge  County  Expenses 

In  1913  the  cost  of  county  government  in  North  Carolina  was  nearly 
7  million  dollars,  or  more  than  twice  the  cost  of  state  government. 

On  the  same  date  the  bonded  debt  piled  up  by  county  authorities  was 
only  a  little  less  than  the  bonded  indebtedness  of  the  state. 

County  officers  in  North  Carolina  in  1913  spent  nearly  900  thousand 
dollars  in  road  building  and  repairs,  358  thousand  dollars  in  charities, 
hospitals  and  corrections,  324  thousand  dollars  in  interest  payments, 
1022  thousand  dollars  in  courthouse  salaries,  200  thousand  dollars  for 
the  protection  of  persons  and  property — on  courts,  jails,  chain  gangs, 
and  the  like. 

In  1914  we  had  6400  almshouse  and  outside  paupers — inmates  of  our 
county  homes  and  persons  outside,  receiving  help  in  small  sums 
monthly  from  the  county  treasuries;  and  they  are  costing  $258,500  a 
year — so  far  as  we  could  ascertain  after  five  months  of  diligent  cor- 
respondence with  the  county  registers.  Twenty-two  counties  made  only 
partial  reports,  in  round  numbers.  Five  county  officers  we  were  never 
able  to  hear  from  at  all. 


8  County  Government 

Strange  Unconcern 

County  government  is  a  big  affair  in  the  United  States.  The  year 
before  the  World  War  began  it  amounted  to  385  million  dollars,  or 
about  a  third  as  much  as  the  total  expenses  of  the  Federal  Government. 

And  yet  the  average  citizen  knows  little  or  nothing  about  county 
finances,  about  the  tax  list  and  the  amazing  inequities  and  delinquencies 
it  discloses  everywhere;  about  what  county  revenues  are  spent  for,  and 
whether  they  are  spent  wisely  or  unwisely,  effectively  or  wastefully. 

The  Annual  County  Balance  Sheets  required  by  law  and  given  to  the 
public  in  the  county  papers  year  by  year  in  North  Carolina  are  com- 
monly unbusinesslike  and  meaningless.  Frequently  the  County  Finan- 
cial Exhibits  are  not  published  at  all,  as  in  some  20  counties  of  the 
State  in  1916. 

Annual  Balance  Sheets 

Nobody  knows  how  the  county  stands — not  even  the  county  commis- 
sioners, in  many  instances.  Usually  there  is  no  exhibit  under  classi- 
fied headings,  and  so  nobody  can  tell  exactly  how  much  is  spent  for  this 
or  that  purpose — say  on  paupers,  the  total  number  or  the  per  capita 
cost;  or  on  roads,  the  miles  built,  the  average  cost  per  mile  of  the 
different  kinds  of  road,  the  per  capita  daily  cost  of  convicts,  work  ani- 
mals and  the  like,  and  the  share  of  the  various  townships  in  the  ex- 
penditure for  roads  and  bridges  during  the  year. 

The  newspaper  reports  of  accounts  audited  by  the  commissioners 
from  time  to  time  are  full  of  typographical  errors.  Besides,  they  are  a 
meaningless  jumble  of  dates,  names,  and  amounts  that  defy  classifica- 
tion. We  know,  because  for  three  years  we  have  been  trying  to  ascer- 
tain from  these  data  how  the  tax  moneys  of  one  county  are  applied  to 
the  various  departments  of  county  welfare. 

And,  by  the  way,  during  these  three  years  the  commissioners  of  this 
county  have  given  to  the  taxpayers  no  complete  and  detailed  statement 
of  county  finances. 

In  another  county  only  one  annual  county  exhibit  has  been  given  to 
the  public  in  20  years.  In  other  counties  the  taxpayers  have  had  to  get 
special  audits  by  applying  to  the  courts.    And  so  on  and  on. 

Undirected  Democracy 

We  have  no  Manual  of  Instruction  for  County  OflScers,  as  in  a  half 
dozen  other  States;  no  standardized  forms  of  statement  to  indicate  how 
reports  should  be  prepared  and  what  they  should  contain;  no  uniform- 
ity in  accounting,  and  no  State-wide  audit  system,  as  in  Indiana  and 
Ohio,  and  less  effectively  in  20  other  States. 


In  North  Caeolina  9 

Government  of  the  people,  by  the  people,  for  the  people  in  the  coun- 
ties of  the  United  States  is  now  a  half-billion  dollar  affair — in  North 
Carolina  something  like  an  8-million-dollar  matter,  and  it  needs  intelli- 
gent oversight  and  direction  in  order  to  avoid  huge  waste. 

Honest  and  Inefficient 

Our  county  officers  are  good  men  and  true.  As  a  rule  they  are  honest 
beyond  all  question;  but  are  they  also  trained  men  of  affairs,  compe- 
tent to  manage  the  biggest  single  business  in  most  of  the  counties  of 
the  country  at  large? 

Wherever  the  business  end  of  county  affairs  has  come  under  strict 
review  and  pitiless  publicity,  amazing  inefficiencies  are  disclosed.  For 
instance,  Alameda  County,  California,  saved  $810,000  in  one  department 
in  four  years  by  a  searching  investigation  of  county  business.  In 
Indiana,  since  1909,  county  officers  have  returned  to  the  county  treas- 
uries the  greater  part  of  $1,600,000  improperly  paid  them. 

In  Lee  County,  North  Carolina,  says  the  Sanford  Express,  the  sheriffs 
from  1912  to  1916  received  nearly  $1,600  more  than  the  law  allowed  for 
the  collection  of  taxes — ^doubtless  quite  innocently. 

Orange  County,  for  a  half  year  or  so  supported  two  sheriffs — one  on 
salary  account  and  the  other  on  a  fee  basis  as  tax  collector. 

In  Krunswick  the  county  farm  is  this  year  supporting  the  County 
Home,  and  producing  a  small  balance  for  the  county  treasury.  In  1914 
the  average  acreage  of  the  county  homes  in  North  Carolina  was  150 
acres,  but  an  average  of  only  40  acres  was  in  use,  and  the  average  net 
cost  to  the  counties  was  around  a  thousand  dollars  each — some  $95,000 
all  told. 

Common  County  Exliibits 

The  law  in  North  Carolina  calls  for  an  exhibit  of  county  finances  in 
every  county  each  year.  In  80  counties  last  year  these  exhibits  were 
given  to  the  public  in  the  county  papers,  in  a  few  instances  in  pamphlet 
form. 

Frequently  the  newspapers  carried  these  statements  piecemeal.  In- 
stead of  giving  the  entire  exhibit  in  one  issue  of  the  paper,  a  half 
dozen  issues  or  so  carried  the  story  of  county  finances.  To  get  the 
whole  report  it  was  necessary  to  clip  from  week  to  week,  file  away 
carefully,  and  finally  assemble  all  the  parts  for  study — a  tax  upon 
attention  that  the  average  citizen  is  not  equal  to.  That  kind  of  thing 
makes  the  most  alert  taxpayer  throw  up  his  hands  and  quit.  It  is  a 
capital  way  of  befuddling  the  public  mind. 

Commonly  the  typesetting  and  proofreading,  or  lack  of  proofreading, 
sprinkles  the  columns  so  thick  with  all  sorts  of  errors  as  to  make  the 
whole  thing  useless  for  any  purpose  whatsoever. 


10  County  Government 

In  fewer  than  a  dozen  counties  was  there  any  proper  assembling  of 
(1)  county  assets;  (2)  county  indebtedness;  (3)  county  receipts,  and 
(4)  county  expenditures  for  the  various  purposes  of  public  welfare. 

The  report  of  the  county  superintendent  of  schools  is  the  only  ex- 
hibit that  approaches  the  necessary  form,  and  sometimes  the  report  on 
roads  and  bridges.  Otherwise  the  exhibit  is  usually  unbusinesslike  and 
passes  understanding. 

No  wonder  a  country  editor  was  moved  to  say  the  other  day,  "The 
annual  county  statement  in  my  county  is  so  absurd  that  I  always  feel 
like  I'm  robbing  the  county  when  I  render  a  bill  for  printing  it."  But 
the  money  of  the  taxpayers  will  be  wasted  in  this  way  for  many  years 
to  come  unless  intelligent  citizenship  demands  a  businesslike  annual 
statement  of  county  finances.  Here  is  a  problem— one  among  many— 
for  Local  Study-Clubs  to  work  at. 

Not  every  county  in  North  Carolina  is  wasting  money  in  printing 
absurd  annual  statements— say  a  baker's  dozen.  But  how  about  your 
county?  The  North  Carolina  Club  w^ould  like  to  hear  from  thoughtful 
people  in  every  county  about  this  or  any  other  matter  that  good  citizens 
ought  to  be  concerned  about. 

It  is  hardly  necessary  to  say  that  the  North  Carolina  Club  is  not  in 
anywise  interested  in  partisan  politics  or  local  personalities.  It  is 
interested  in  our  county  government,  its  weaknesses  and  deficiencies  as 
a  system,  and  the  ways  and  means  of  getting  the  best  results  for  local 
self-governing  communities. 

A  Worth- While  Exhibit 

We  happen  to  have  at  hand  a  hundred  copies  or  so  of  what  strikes  us 
as  being  a  really  worth-while  kind  of  Financial  Exhibit  by  a  board  of 
county  commissioners.  It  is  in  booklet  form,  Zyo-x-6  inches,  and  it  is 
mailed  out  yearly  to  every  taxpayer  in  the  county.  The  reader  can 
stick  it  in  his  coat  pocket  and  chew  on  it  at  his  leisure  in  any  sort  of 
odd  moment. 

It  is  so  compact  and  simple  that  a  wayfaring  man  though  a  fool  can 
read  it  as  he  runs  and  get  some  sense  out  of  it  about  the  money  affairs 
of  his  county. 

He  can  see  the  receipts  in  detail  and  in  toto.  Under  proper  headings 
he  finds  just  how  much  was  spent  for  various  purposes,  to  whom  money 
was  paid  and  what  for  down  to  the  last  cent — the  total  expenses  of 
courts,  juries,  paupers,  care  and  feed  of  prisoners,  bridges,  road  build- 
ing and  repairs  by  townships,  equipments  and  materials,  interest, 
treasurer's  commissions  and  so  on  and  on. 

He  knows  the  miles  of  highway  built,  the  average  cost  per  mile,  and 
the  per  capita  daily  cost  of  work-animals,   convict  labor,   and   hired 


In  North  Carolina  11 

labor.    He  sees  at  a  glance  what  the  bonded  and  floating  indebtedness 
of  the  county  is. 

Uniform  County  Accounting' 

He  has  a  chance  to  see  where  his  county  stands  in  its  finances.  And 
since  the  same  forms  of  accounting  are  used  year  by  year,  he  knows 
whether  the  commissioners  are  doing  better  or  worse  than  former  com- 
missioners. 

It  is  easy  to  see  that  if  every  county  in  a  state  were  using  the  same 
form  of  annual  exhibit,  this  or  some  other,  the  taxpayers  would  soon 
begin  to  know  what  counties  were  using  public  money  to  the  best 
advantage,  and  what  counties  were  wasting  public  funds. 

As  it  is,  there  is  no  basis  for  comparison.  In  one  county  convicts 
engaged  in  road  work  cost  $1.13  a  day,  in  another  95  cents,  in  another 
$1.73.  But  we  just  stumble  on  these  differences  here  and  there;  no 
published  State  report  enables  us  to  compare  any  county  with  every 
other  in  the  details  of  county  expense. 

County  bookkeeping  ought  to  be  uniform,  and  then  the  people  might 
know  in  every  county  whether  or  not  their  commissioners  were  getting 
results  or  getting  left. 

But  in  North  Carolina  at  present  nobody  is  in  any  position  to  say 
whether  or  not  the  people  are  getting  proper  results  from  the  million 
dollars  a  year  the  counties  are  spending  on  roads,  or  from  the  expendi- 
tures for  any  other  county  purpose. 

We  will  send  this  little  county  booklet  to  anybody  that  wants  it. 
Drop  us  a  card.     It  is  worth  looking  at  closely. 

Training  for  Citizenship 

This  year  the  North  Carolina  Club  has  been  busy  (1)  hunting  down 
the  facts  about  county  affairs  in  North  Carolina- — so  far  as  such  a  thing 
is  possible;  (2)  assembling  and  interpreting  the  facts  about  county 
affairs  in  other  States:  (3)  finding  hopeful  and  possible  ways  and 
means  of  improvement  and  progress  in  county  government  in  North 
Carolina. 


12  County  Government 


North  Carolina  Club,  1917-1918 

President,    Albert   M.    Coates.    Johnston    County;    Secretary,    S.    H. 
Hobbs,  Jr.,  Sampson  County. 

Steering    Committee:    E.    C.    Branson,    Orange    County,    Chairman; 
F.  F.  Bradshaw,  Orange  County;  Albert  M.  Coates,  Johnston  County. 

Publicity  Committee:    Albert  M.  Coates,  chairman;   Frank  Clarvoe, 
Louisiana;  R.  W.  Madry,  Halifax  County. 

Members:  Wilbur  Stout,  Alamance  County;  F.  L.  Hurley,  Ashe 
County;  D.  D.  Topping,  Beaufort  County;  H.  E.  Martin,  Bladen  County; 
F.  T.  Thompson,  J.  S.  Howell,  Buncombe  County;  W.  P.  Saunders, 
J.  F.  Spainhour,  Burke  County;  L.  L.  Spann,  Caldwell  County;  H.  C. 
Hefner,  Catawba  County;  J.  F.  Totten,  Davidson  County;  Leo  Carr, 
Duplin  County;  S.  H.  Reams,  Durham  County;  W.  H.  Andrews,  B.  H. 
Thomas,  Edgecombe  County;  W.  T.  Brinkley,  Forsyth  County;  J.  S. 
Massenburg,  Franklin  County;  T.  J.  Brawley,  J.  J.  Rhyne,  Gaston 
County;  O.  W.  Hale,  Gates  County;  A.  R.  Bullock,  Granville  County; 
W.  M.  York,  S.  H.  Willis,  R.  A.  Frazier,  R.  H.  Souther,  N.  A.  Boren, 
Guilford  County;  R.  W.  Madry,  Halifax  County;  W.  B.  Johnson,  Harnett 
County;  V.  L.  Smathers,  Haywood  County;  H.  E.  O'Neal,  Hyde  County; 
Albert  M.  Coates,  J.  M.  Stuckey,  Johnston  County;  P.  B.  Pollock,  Jones 
County;  M.  S.  Suggs,  C.  B.  Thomas,  Lee  County;  A.  C.  Young,  P.  J. 
Ransom,  Nathan  Mobley,  W.  H.  Bobbitt,  W.  P.  Andrews,  J.  A.  Per- 
son, Mecklenburg  County;  J.  W.  Sexton.  Nash  County;  B.  C.  Brown, 
Onslow  County;  E.  K.  Graham,  M.  H.  Stacy,  F.  F.  Bradshaw,  C.  W. 
Davis,  L.  H.  Jobe,  A.  C.  Mcintosh,  R.  H.  Thornton,  E.  C.  Branson, 
Orange  County;  C.  M.  Woodard,  Pamlico  County;  J.  B.  Broach,  Person 
County;  C.  L.  Harrington.  W.  H.  Hooker,  W.  F.  Stokes,  Pitt  County; 
J.  M.  Robbins,  R.  O.  Smith,  Z.  V.  Rush,  C.  W.  Phillips,  Randolph 
County;  J.  S.  Terry,  D.  E.  Scarborough,  Richmond  County;  J.  T. 
Proctor,  Robeson  County;  J.  M.  Gwynn,  E.  F.  Duncan,  R.  B.  Gwynne, 
W.  E.  Price,  L.  H.  Hodges,  T.  D.  Stokes,  Nathan  Womack,  C.  H.  Smith, 
Rockingham  County;  J.  B.  Linker,  Rowan  County;  R.  E.  Price,  Ruther- 
ford County;  J.  V.  Raggett,  S.  H.  Hobbs,  Jr.,  Sampson  County;  J.  M. 
Gibson,  Scotland  County;  C.  F.  Crissman,  Surry  County;  Myron  Green. 
Union  County;  R.  D.  Williams,  T.  S.  Kittrell,  Vance  County;  O.  R. 
Cunningham,  W.  T.  Shaw,  J.  E.  Norris,  Wake  County;  F.  G.  Miles,  War- 
ren County;  D.  J.  Rose,  E.  A.  Griffin,  Allen  Miner,  Wayne  County;  H.  H. 
Huff,  Virginia;  T.  D.  Crawford.  Georgia,  and  Frank  Clarvoe,  Louisiana. 


In  North  Carolina  13 


CHAPTER  I 

The  County  in  North  Carolina:  Its  Origin,  Place,  and 

Functions 

J.  G.  deRoitlhac  Hamilton,  Alumni  Professor  of  History,   University 
of  North  Carolina 

The  county  in  North  Carolina  had  its  origin  in  the  colonial  period, 
but  it  was  of  course  based  upon  a  much  earlier  English  model.  The 
Lords  Proprietors  planned  the  creation  of  eight  counties  palatine  which, 
consolidated,  would  form  a  great  feudal  state,  and  the  concessions  of 
1665  mentioned  by  name  Clarendon  and  Albemarle  and  alluded  to  a 
third.  Craven,  which  was,  however,  outside  the  present  boundaries  of 
North  Carolina.  Clarendon  was  abandoned  and  Bath  was  later  created. 
These  counties,  however,  based  upon  the  feudal  idea  predominant  in 
Locke's  plan  of  government  for  the  Province  of  Carolina,  failed  to 
develop  beyond  mere  names,  and  thus  have  no  connection  with  the 
existing  counties  of  the  State. 

The  present  counties  grew  out  of  the  precincts  into  which  Albemarle 
and  Bath  were  divided;  the  former  containing  Currituck,  Pasquotank, 
Perquimans,  Chowan,  Edgecombe,  Bertie;  the  latter,  Beaufort,  Hyde, 
Craven,  Carteret,  New  Hanover,  Bladen,  and  Onslow.  The  larger 
divisions  were  abolished  in  1738,  and  from  that  time  on  the  precincts 
were  known  as  counties,  and  increased  steadily  in  number. 

The  early  settlers  of  North  Carolina  were  chiefly  small  farmers,  and 
consequently  no  town  system  developed.  Both  in  size  and  number  the 
towns  of  North  Carolina  were  unimportant  during  the  whole  colonial 
period.  But  for  this  fact  North  Carolina  would  probably  have  had  a 
mixed  town  and  county  system  of  local  government,  for  borough  repre- 
sentation was  established  for  the  more  important  towns.  The  parish, 
another  important  English  unit  of  local  control,  on  account  of  the  weak- 
ness of  the  English  Church  in  the  colony,  never  assumed  any  govern- 
mental importance.  The  county  was  thus  left  without  a  rival  as  the 
unit  of  local  government,  and  suited  the  habits  of  the  people  accustomed 
to  the  English  rural  system. 

Counties  were  created  at  different  times  by  both  the  governor  and 
the  legislature.  Their  government  after  1693  was  in  the  hands  of  a 
county  court,  consisting  at  first  of  the  sheriff  and  four  justices  of  the 
peace,  and  later  of  the  entire  body  of  justices,  appointed  for  life  or 
good  behavior.  These  courts  had  a  limited  criminal  and  civil  jurisdic- 
tion, and,  like  their  English  models,  exercised  a  great  mass  of  adminis- 
trative functions.     In  time,  like  the  English  county  courts,  they  sat 


14  County  Government 

regularly  four  times  a  year  for  the  transaction  of  judicial  and  adminis- 
trative business.  In  an  agricultural  community  like  North  Carolina 
the  latter  were,  while  very  important,  exceedingly  simple.  From  time 
to  time,  by  special  or  general  acts,  the  legislature  settled  matters  of 
larger  concern.  It  was  not  at  all  a  bad  system  for  the  community  as 
it  existed  prior  to  the  civil  war,  for  while  it  will  be  noticed  that  there 
was  only  a  small  amount  of  self-government  and  that  the  people  had 
no  voice  in  the  control  of  local  affairs,  it  was  nevertheless  true  that  the 
justices  were  a  very  representative  group.  The  system  lasted  with 
small  change  until  1868,  when  the  county  courts  were  abolished  and 
the  county  government  placed  in  the  hands  of  commissioners  chosen 
by  the  people. 

When  the  constitution  of  1868  was  formed,  it  was  the  purpose  of  the 
aliens  who  controlled  the  convention  to  establish  in  the  State  through 
the  creation  of  townships  new  units  of  local  government.  But  the 
townships  were  a  foreign  growth,  and  doomed  from  the  beginning  to 
utter  failure.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  local  conditions  and  the  confusion 
of  Reconstruction  would  of  themselves  have  made  their  success  impos- 
sible. Consequently  the  township  has  never  amounted  to  much  in  the 
way  of  local  government.  Nor  were  the  counties  given  any  new  powers 
in  the  new  constitution. 

When  the  State  was  redeemed  from  the  control  of  the  spoilers  in 
1875  and  1876,  because  of  the  shocking  effects  of  negro  rule  in  the 
eastern  counties,  the  choice  of  the  county  commissioners  was  taken 
from  the  people  and  put  in  the  hands  of  the  magistrates  who  were 
chosen  by  the  legislature.  The  old  system  was  restored  in  1895  with 
very  evil  results  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  State,  but  finally  a  special 
system  was  adopted  for  those  counties  which  lasted  until  the  adoption 
of  the  suffrage  amendment. 

The  State  was  growing  rapidly  during  the  period  following  the  close 
of  Reconsftruction,  and  a  new  set  of  problems  confronted  the  localities. 
Instead  of  working  out  some  system  of  local  control  of  local  affairs,  the 
legislature  continued  to  exercise  control  and  to  legislate  for  the  sepa- 
rate counties.  Its  time  was  more  and  more  taken  up  with  local  and 
special  matters  until  finally  the  burden  was  not  only  a  serious  obstacle 
to  legislation  of  state-wide  interest  and  importance,  but  actually  a  clog 
upon  progress.  Grave  as  this  evil  was,  it  was  not  the  worst  feature  of 
the  system.  The  legislature  was  increasingly  incompetent,  for  lack  of 
knowledge,  to  legislate  for  the  counties,  and  finally,  instead  of  local 
self-government,  or  even  legislative  control,  the  larger  matters  of 
county  government  were  virtually  in  the  hands  of  the  members  of  the 
legislature  from  each  county,  and  men  were  elected  not  to  legislate  for 
the  State  as  a  whole,  but  to  secure  some  particular  legislation  for  their 
counties.  Needless  to  say,  there  has  been  constant  interference  in 
county  affairs  often  to  the  detriment  of  the  county. 


In  North  Carolina  15 

It  is  to  be  hoped  that  the  recent  amendment  will  result  in  the  estab- 
lishment of  some  system  which  will  put  the  control  of  local  affairs  in 
the  hands  of  the  localities.  It  would  mean  the  choice  of  stronger  men 
for  oflfice.  Today  there  is  little  to  attract  the  better  men  to  the  office  of 
commissioner.  Aside  from  fixing  the  county  tax  rate  and  collecting 
taxes,  doling  out  money  for  paupers,  spending  county  revenues  for  other 
county  purposes  allowable  under  the  laws  of  the  State,  voting  on  special 
local  school  support,  and  electing  county  officers,  other  than  the  county 
school  boards,  county  self-rule  is  a  myth  in  North  Carolina.  Along 
with  this  should  go  the  power  to  determine  all  the  matters  hitherto 
handled  by  the  legislature  in  public-local  legislation,  limited,  of  course, 
by  requirements  and  prohibitions  of  general  laws.  For  it  would  be 
absurd  to  deny  to  the  State  the  power  of  general  regulation.  It  is  alto- 
gether good  for  the  State  to  reserve  the  original  and  final  right  to 
supreme  control  over  county  affairs,  if  only  the  State  would  meet  its 
responsibilities  in  the  matter  of  state-wide  guidance  and  oversight — 
say  in  levying,  collecting,  and  expending  tax  revenues,  in  establishing 
uniform  county  account  keeping  and  standardized  forms  of  annual 
financial  exhibits,  and  the  like. 

As  it  is,  the  State  reserves  to  itself  the  rights  and  neglects  the  re- 
sponsibilities in  these  matters.  The  counties  are  left  to  administer 
their  finances  under  the  State  laws,  and  they  do  it  without  definite 
instructions  and  responsible  supervision— each  county  a  law  unto  itself. 
As  a  result  local  customs  make  ducks  and  drakes  of  State  laws.  The 
inevitable  result  is  waste. 

Some  years  ago,  for  instance,  when  Florida  established  a  state-wide 
county-audit  system,  the  auditor  saved  the  counties  $80,000  and  the 
State  another  $60,000  the  very  first  year.  That  State  now  has  one 
auditor  and  two  assistants,  and  what  they  save  the  State  and  county 
treasuries  annually  offsets  the  expense  a  dozen  times  over.  All  told, 
twenty-one  States  have  such  audit  systems— but  not  North  Carolina. 

Under  our  system  the  county  is  a  unit  of  representation,  taxation, 
and  administration  under  State  laws  that  provide  no  adequate  machinery 
of  oversight  and  control.  County  officials  are  therefore  left  to  do  as 
they  please,  or  as  best  they  can,  without  proper  instruction,  direction, 
and  regulation. 

The  way  of  progress  lies  in  proper  State  authority  and  control  in  all 
matters  of  state-wide  concern,  along  with  the  fullest  possible  measure 
of  local  authority  consistent  with  the  interests  of  the  State  at  large. 

The  way  out  is  State  control  in  state-wide  matters,  along  with  ade- 
quate oversight  and  regulation,  and  county  control  of  all  local  matters 
that  do  not  involve  the  general  public  welfare  as  covered  by  state-wide 
law. 


References:   Colonial  Record  of  N.  C,  Laws  of  N.  C. 


16  County  Government 

CHAPTER  II 
The  County  Government  System  in  North  Carolina 

Atwell  Campbell  McIntosh,  Professor  of  Law,  University  of 
North  Carolina 

1.    The  English  System 

When  the  English  colonists  came  to  this  country  in  the  17th  century, 
they  brought  with  them,  or  there  was  established  for  them,  a  form  of 
local  government  based  upon  that  of  the  mother  country,  m.odified  to 
suit  the  peculiar  circumstances  or  the  peculiar  ideas  of  each  colony. 
In  England,  the  lowest  division  of  the  civil  territory  was  known  by 
various  names  according  to  the  purpose  or  locality,  but  all  having  the 
same  general  object — the  management  of  local  affairs.  These  were 
known  as  towns,  townships,  tithings,  manors,  boroughs,  and  in  York 
trithings  or  ridings.  The  ecclesiastical  subdivisions  were  parishes, 
and  in  the  union  of  church  and  state  these  came  to  be  used  as  civil 
divisions  also,  and  in  meaning  were  almost  the  same  as  towns  or  town- 
ships. All  of  these  names  were  used  in  one  or  more  of  the  colonies  to 
indicate  the  lowest  unit  of  local  government. 

The  town  or  township,  as  representative  of  this  lowest  unit,  was  a 
small  rural  community  in  which  the  local  affairs  were  managed  by  an 
assembly  of  the  people  of  the  community  in  a  town-meeting,  in  which 
they  elected  a  president,  town-reeve,  tithing-man  or  constable,  who 
with  the  "four  best  men"  represented  the  township  in  the  next  two 
higher  divisions  of  the  government.  The  affairs  of  the  parish  were  in 
the  hands  of  the  vestry,  which  was  either  an  "open  vestry,"  where  every 
person  was  supposed  to  attend  and  take  part,  or  the  "select  vestry," 
managed  by  only  a  few  persons.  The  most  important  officers  of  the 
parish  were  the  church-wardens  elected  by  the  vestry;  and  when  the 
parish  became  also  the  civil  division,  the  constable  became  the  most 
important  officer,  as  he  had  been  in  the  township.  Some  of  the  duties 
of  the  township  or  parish,  through  the  officers  named  and  various  other 
minor  officers,  were  to  look  after  the  roads,  to  provide  for  the  local 
expenses,  to  "procession"  lands,  to  provide  for  the  support  of  the  church 
and  for  the  support  of  the  poor.  The  church-wardens  were  made  "over- 
seers of  the  poor"  by  an  act  of  43  Elizabeth. 

The  next  division  was  the  hundred,  composed  of  several  townships. 
Its  duties  were  mostly  judicial,  and  were  performed  through  the  hun- 
dred-court. This  court  was  made  up  of  representatives  from  the  town- 
ships, and  presided  over  by  the  hundred-man;  the  most  important 
officer,  however,  was  the  constable,  called  the  "high  constable"  to  di.s- 


In  North  Carolina  17 

tinguish  him  from  the  "petty  constable"  of  the  township.  Gradually 
the  powers  of  this  court  were  taken  over  by  other  courts,  and  this 
division  virtually  went  out  of  existence.  In  some  of  the  colonies,  as  in 
Virginia,  Maryland,  and  Delaware,  there  were  subdivisions  known  as 
hundreds,  but  this  probably  meant  the  same  as  township  or  parish. 

The  largest  and  principal  civil  division  was  the  shire  under  the  Saxon 
rule,  called  county  after  the  Norman  conquest.  The  most  important 
officer  was  the  sheriff  (shire-reeve),  who  had  extensive  powers  as  repre- 
senting the  king  in  military  affairs,  as  a  peace  officer,  managing  the 
finances,  and  presiding  over  the  shire  or  county  court.  The  business 
of  the  county  was  transacted  in  the  county  court,  composed  of  the 
"reeve  and  four  best  men"  from  the  townships  and  the  large  landholders 
of  the  county.  Its  duties  were  both  judicial  and  administrative,  such 
as  providing  for  highways  and  bridges,  levying  the  taxes,  etc.  Gradu- 
ally the  sheriff  and  his  court  lost  much  of  their  power  by  the  royal 
courts  taking  the  judicial  business,  but  more  especially  by  the  enlarged 
powers  given  to  the  justices  of  the  peace.  These  justices,  originating 
probably  in  the  13th  century,  became  by  the  17th  century  the  most 
important  officers  in  the  local  administration.  They  were  given  the 
duties  of  the  township  or  parish,  and  the  constable  became  only  the 
executive  officer;  and  when  the  justices  from  the  whole  county  were 
authorized  to  meet  together  as  a  body  to  transact  the  business  of  the 
county,  this  became  the  county  court  as  known  in  this  country,  and  the 
sheriff  was  its  executive  officer.  These  justices,  who  were  appointed 
by  the  king  through  the  lord  chancellor,  served  without  pay  and  were 
generally  the  most  prominent  men  in  the  county.  They  met  in  quarter 
sessions,  and,  in  addition  to  important  judicial  powers,  performed  the 
general  duties  of  the  old  shire  court  in  levying  taxes,  managing  the 
finances,  providing  for  highways  and  bridges,  and  for  public  build- 
ings; controlling  vagrants,  binding  apprentices,  granting  licenses,  pro- 
viding for  the  poor;  and  later,  in  this  country,  certain  duties  which 
belonged  to  the  ecclesiastical  courts,  such  as  the  probate  of  wills, 
appointment  of  executors,  administrators,  and  guardians,  and  con- 
trolling their  settlements.  At  the  time  the  colonies  were  established 
here  this  county  court  was  the  most  important  feature  of  the  local 
government  in  England,  and  was  transplanted  here  in  a  more  or  less 
modified  form. 

2.    The  Colonial  Systems 

In  the  English  colonies  there  were  four  different  plans  adopted  for 
the  local  government;  these  were  carried  over  into  the  states  and  are 
now  the  forms  of  local  administration  throughout  the  United   States. 

1,  The  New  England  oe  Town  System.  In  the  New  England  colonies, 
on  account  of  the  nature  of  the  country  and  the  importance  given  to  the 
local  church,  the  town  or  township  became  the  unit  of  government. 
2 


18  County  Government 

The  local  affairs  were  managed  in  the  town-meeting  attended  by  all  the 
inhabitants,  who  were  authorized  to  take  part  in  public  affairs.  In 
this  meeting  they  elected  a  presiding  officer  or  moderator  and  various 
other  officers,  and  transacted  all  the  local  business  by  passing  measures 
to  be  afterwards  carried  out  by  their  representatives,  the  "selectmen," 
and  other  officers.  This  system  was  found  so  satisfactory  that  the  town 
government  has  remained  as  the  characteristic  feature  of  that  section  to 
the  exclusion  of  the  county  system.  The  county  is  recognized  only  for 
judicial  and  other  purposes  more  directly  connected  with  the  state 
administration. 

2.  The  New  York,  or  Supekvisor  Plan.  The  town  or  township  gov- 
ernment existed  for  the  management  of  local  affairs,  as  in  New  Eng- 
land, but  each  town,  township,  or  district  elected  one  supervisor,  and 
these  met  together  and  managed  the  affairs  of  the  county  as  a  repre- 
sentative assembly.  The  characteristic  feature  of  this  plan  was  that  a 
supervisor  was  chosen  from  each  town  or  township. 

3.  The  Pennsylvania,  or  Commissioner  Plan.  In  this  plan  the 
county  became  the  unit  of  local  government,  and  the  town,  township, 
or  other  subordinate  division  became  only  an  agency  in  county  govern- 
ment. The  people  voting  in  their  various  districts  elected,  together 
with  the  sheriff,  assessors,  and  other  officers,  three  "commissioners" 
from  the  county  at  large,  and  these  commissioners  had  the  management 
of  the  general  county  administration. 

4.  The  Southern,  or  County-Court  Plan.  In  this  the  county  was  the 
unit  of  government,  and  the  form  adopted  most  nearly  resembled  that 
in  existence  in  England.  The  management  of  the  county  affairs  was 
committed  to  the  county  court,  composed  of  the  justices  of  the  county, 
and  the  sheriff  was  the  executive  officer  of  this  court.  The  justices  and 
sheriff  were  in  most  instances  appointed  by  the  governor  or  by  the 
proprietors  of  the  colony,  and,  in  addition  to  managing  the  general 
affairs  of  the  county,  this  court  appointed  subordinate  officers  for  sub- 
ordinate divisions,  known  as  precincts,  parishes,  townships,  etc.  This 
county  court  corresponded  to  the  court  of  quarter  sessions  in  England 
and  was  frequently  called  by  that  name.  While  the  term  county  was 
generally  used,  other  names  were  also  employed,  as  parishes  in  the 
lower  part  of  South  Carolina  and  districts  in  the  upper  part. 

3.    North  Carolina  County  GoYemment 

1.  Under  the  Proprietors,  1663-1728.  While  settlements  were  made 
in  what  is  now  North  Carolina  between  1650  and  1660,  the  civil  or 
political  history  begins  with  the  charter  of  Charles  II,  in  1663,  by  which 
he  granted  to  eight  Lords  Proprietors  the  province  of  Carolina,  with 
such  full  powers  of  government  as  appertained  to  the  county  palatine 
of  Durham  in  England.    The  county  palatine  of  Durham  was  so  called 


In  Nobth  Carolina  19 

because  the  bishop  of  Durham  had  in  this  county  as  full  powers  of 
government  as  the  king  had  in  his  palace.  These  privileges  were 
granted  so  that  the  people  might  have  justice  administered  at  home 
and  not  have  to  go  out  of  the  county.  With  these  liberal  powers,  the 
proprietors  determined  to  form  counties  40  miles  square,  each  of  which 
was  to  have  its  own  government;  and  about  1664  they  formed  the  county 
of  Albemarle,  with  Drummond  as  governor.  A  little  later  the  settle- 
ment on  the  Cape  Fear  was  organized  into  a  county  called  Clarendon, 
with  Yeamans  as  governor,  but  this  was  abandoned  in  a  few  years.  A 
little  later  the  territory  between  these  was  called  the  county  of  Bath, 
which  was  united  with  Albemarle  to  make  up  the  province. 

Taking  the  county  of  Albemarle  as  the  principal,  and  for  a  while  the 
only,  local  government,  the  plan  was  for  the  governor,  appointed  by 
the  proprietors,  with  his  council  and  the  freemen  of  the  colonies  or  their 
deputies,  to  make  the  laws.  The  first  assembly  was  in  1665,  and  the 
entire  body  of  citizens  met,  acting  for  themselves  and  not  by  deputies. 
In  1667  they  elected  twelve  deputies  to  represent  them,  and  these,  with 
the  governor  and  council,  constituted  the  assembly,  called  the  "Grand 
Assembly." 

In  1669  the  proprietors  adopted  the  Fundamental  Constitutions  pre- 
pared by  Locke,  a  very  elaborate  and  complicated  system  of  government 
not  at  all  suited  to  the  colony  nor,  indeed,  to  any  community,  but  some 
parts  of  the  plan  remained  after  the  general  plan  was  abandoned  in  a 
few  years.  The  whole  province  was  to  be  divided  into  counties,  each 
county  into  eight  seigniories,  eight  baronies,  twenty-four  colonies,  the 
latter  to  be  arranged  in  four  precincts.  In  every  county  there  was  to 
be  a  court  held  by  the  sheriff  and  one  justice  of  the  peace  from  each 
precinct;  and  in  each  precinct  there  was  to  be  a  court  composed  of  a 
steward  and  four  justices.  The  county  of  Albemarle  was  divided  into 
four  precincts  and  later  into  six  (Currituck,  Pasquotank,  Perquimans, 
Chowan,  Bertie,  and  Tyrrell);  Bath  County  had  four  precincts  (Beau- 
fort, Hyde,  Craven,  and  Carteret) ;  and  what  was  Clarendon  County, 
one  (New  Hanover).  The  system  of  courts  does  not  seem  to  have  been 
adopted,  but  in  place  thereof  justices  of  the  peace  were  appointed  by 
the  governor  for  each  precinct,  and  these  justices  had  a  limited  juris- 
diction, acting  alone;  the  precinct  courts  were  held  by  all  the  justices 
of  the  precinct,  generally  eight  in  number,  though  a  smaller  number 
could  hold  the  court.  The  sessions  were  quarterly,  and  the  jurisdiction 
included  both  criminal  and  civil  cases,  and  also  the  power  to  take  the 
probate  of  wills,  appoint  administrators,  guardians  for  orphans,  bind 
apprentices,  and  receive  entries  for  land. 

In  this  we  have  the  beginning  of  our  county  court  as  a  system  of 
government.  The  executive  officer  of  this  court  was  called  the  provost 
marshal,  and  the  court  seems  to  have  met  at  different  places  in  the 
precinct,  perhaps  at  the  homes  of  some  of  the  justices,  until  1722,  when 


20  County  Government 

an  act  was  passed  to  settle  the  precinct  courts  at  a  certain  place  by 
authorizing  the  justices  to  buy  an  acre  of  land  and  build  a  courthouse 
(to  be  not  less  than  24  ft.  by  16  ft.).  While  the  precinct  was  nominally 
a  division  of  a  county,  like  a  township,  it  was  in  effect  a  shire  or  county 
with  machinery  for  self-government. 

In  1701  there  was  an  attempt  to  establish  the  Church  of  England  in 
the  colony,  and  each  precinct  was  constituted  a  parish.  This  attempt 
failed  for  a  while,  but  the  parish  was  recognized,  and  in  1715  the  estab- 
lishment was  reenacted,  and  several  precincts  were  divided  into  two 
parishes.  The  vestry  managed  the  affairs  of  the  parish,  appointed  a 
clerk  and  two  church  wardens,  levied  the  parish  taxes,  appointed  col- 
lectors, kept  the  church  in  repair,  prepared  standards  of  weights  and 
measures,  and  looked  after  the  sick  and  the  poor. 

2.  Under  the  Royal  Governors,  1728-1776.  In  1728  the  Lords  Pro- 
prietors sold  their  interests  to  the  king  and  a  royal  government  was 
established,  but  no  change  was  made  in  the  local  administration.  The 
precinct  courts  retained  the  general  management  of  local  affairs.  By 
the  act  of  1738  the  precincts  were  called  counties,  as  they  had  really 
been  all  the  time,  and  the  name  provost  marshal  was  changed  to  sheriff. 
The  precinct  courts  became  the  county  courts,  with  the  sheriff  as  the 
executive  officer.  The  act  of  1746  provides  that  these  courts  should  meet 
four  times  a  year,  and  should  have  the  same  powers  and  authority  as 
such  courts  in  England;  and  in  the  court  law  of  1767  they  were  known 
as  Courts  of  Pleas  and  Quarter  Sessions.  They  were  authorized  to 
appoint  constables  for  the  various  counties,  and  the  duties  of  such 
officers  were  prescribed  as  those  of  constables  in  England;  in  1762  they 
were  required  to  hold  an  orphan's  court  once  a  year,  and  thus  their 
power  was  gradually  extended. 

3.  County  Government  in  the  State  from  1776  to  1868.  The  Halifax 
constitution  of  1776  does  not  provide  for  any  particular  form  of  county 
government,  but  the  existing  system  was  continued.  The  justices  of 
the  peace  were  to  be  recommended  to  the  governor  by  the  General  As- 
sembly and  commissioned  by  him  to  hold  office  during  good  behavior, 
and  to  be  subject  to  removal  by  the  General  Assembly  only  for  mis- 
behavior, absence,  or  inability.  The  constitution  also  provided  that 
there  should  be  in  each  county  a  sheriff,  coroner,  or  coroners,  and 
constables,  without  making  provision  as  to  how  these  should  be  chosen; 
but  at  first  they  were  appointed  by  the  county  court,  and  later  the 
sheriffs  were  elected  by  the  voters  of  the  county  and  the  constables  by 
the  voters  in  a  smaller  division  known  as  a  captain's  district,  a  local 
division  for  military  purposes. 

The  county  court  retained  its  control  over  the  administration  of  the 
affairs  of  the  county,  and  was  composed  of  all  the  justices  of  the  county; 
but  any  three  justices  could  hold  the  court,  and  at  the  beginning  of  each 
year  a  majority  of  the  justices  could  appoint  a  chairman  and  designate 


In  Nokth  Carolina  21 

fivB  of  their  number  to  hold  the  court  for  the  year.  The  position  of 
chairman  of  the  county  court  was  an  important  position,  and  was  gen- 
erally filled  by  the  most  experienced  and  competent  justice  in  the  county. 
It  is  said  that  when  Chief  Justice  RuflSn,  perhaps  the  greatest  judge 
the  State  has  produced,  retired  from  the  Supreme  Court  Bench,  he  was 
appointed  a  justice  of  the  peace  of  Alamance  County  in  order  that  he 
might  preside  over  the  county  court,  and  thus  give  the  county  business 
the  advantage  of  his  knowledge  and  experience. 

The  officers  of  this  court  were  the  sheriff,  as  the  executive  officer,  and 
the  clerk  of  the  county  court.  In  addition  to  these,  the  court  appointed 
various  minor  ofiicers  for  the  county  business,  such  as  the  register, 
county  attorney,  county  trustee  (whose  duties  were  about  those  of  the 
treasurer,  later),  inspectors  of  tobacco  and  other  products,  rangers  for 
estrays,  entry-taker  and  surveyor,  overseers  of  the  roads,  patrols,  treas- 
urer of  public  buildings,  standard-keeper,  seven  freeholders  as  overseers 
of  the  poor,  and  these  elected  two  of  their  number  as  wardens  of  the 
poor;  later  they  were  all  called  wardens  of  the  poor  instead  of  overseers, 
and  they  had  the  care  of  the  poor  of  the  county,  a  duty  which  formerly 
belonged  to  the  church  wardens  as  officers  of  the  parish. 

The  judicial  power  of  this  court  extended  to  all  civil  cases  at  common 
law,  where  original  jurisdiction  was  not  otherwise  given  to  a  single 
justice,  or  to  the  Supreme  or  Superior  courts;  its  criminal  jurisdiction 
included  all  petit  larcenies,  assaults  and  batteries,  and  all  trespasses 
and  breaches  of  the  peace,  and  all  other  crimes  and  misdemeanors,  the 
judgment  upon  conviction  whereof  did  not  extend  to  life,  limb,  or 
member.  They  also  had  jurisdiction  in  applications  for  dower  and  in 
partition  proceedings;  the  probate  of  deeds  and  wills;  the  appointment 
of  administrators  and  executors,  guardians  of  infants  and  lunatics,  and 
the  settlements  of  such  officers;  the  assessment  and  levying  of  taxes; 
the  establishment  and  care  of  roads,  ferries,  and  bridges;  granting 
licenses,  and  the  control  of  taverns  by  fixing  the  prices  of  articles  fur- 
nished; and  controlling  erection  of  public  mills.  The  sheriff  collected 
the  taxes  and  paid  over  the  funds  to  the  county  trustee,  and  he  accounted 
for  the  same  to  the  county  court. 

In  this  system  of  government  the  county  is  the  unit,  and  the  town- 
ship or  other  subordinate  division  is  not  recognized  except  as  a  means 
of  county  administration.  There  were  certain  districts  or  precincts  for 
voting,  for  military  duty  (called  captain's  districts),  and  school  dis- 
tricts. When  the  Literary  Fund  was  established  as  a  school  fund,  about 
1840  to  1850,  the  county  court  elected  for  the  county  five  superintendents 
of  common  schools,  and  these  elected  one  of  their  number  chairman, 
with  the  clerk  of  the  county  court  as  ex  officio  clerk  of  the  board.  The 
board  of  superintendents  divided  the  county  into  school  districts,  col- 
lected and  disbursed  the  school  funds  through  the  chairman,  and  he 
accounted  to  the  committee  of  finance,  if  there  was  one,  and  if  none,  then 


22  County  Government 

to  the  clerk  of  the  county  court.  The  county  court  levied  the  school 
tax;  it  was  collected  by  the  sheriff,  and  paid  over  to  the  chairman  of 
the  board  of  superintendents.  The  people  in  the  school  districts  elected 
the  school  committees,  and  there  was  an  appeal  from  the  action  of  the 
school  committee  to  the  board  of  superintendents. 

4.  County  Gove^inment  from  1868  to  1876.  For  about  two  hundred 
years  the  county  government  by  the  justices  of  the  peace  in  the  county 
court  had  been  in  operation  in  North  Carolina,  but  in  the  reconstruction 
period  following  the  Civil  War  great  changes  were  made  in  the  system. 
The  Constitution  of  1868  adopted  the  Township  and  County  Commis- 
sioner plan,  following  that  of  Pennsylvania  originally. 

Article  7  provides  that  there  shall  be  elected  by  popular  vote  in  each 
county,  every  two  years,  a  Treasurer,  Register  of  Deeds,  Surveyor,  and 
five  Commissioners;  that  the  commissioners  shall  exercise  control  over 
the  public  buildings,  schools,  roads,  bridges,  taxes  and  finances  of  the 
county;  and  that  the  Register  of  Deeds  shall  be  ex  officio  Clerk  of  the 
Board  of  Commissioners.  It  is  made  the  duty  of  the  commissioners  to 
divide  the  county  into  convenient  districts,  which,  upon  approval  by 
the  General  Assembly,  shall  be  called  townships.  The  townships  so 
created  are  made  bodies  corporate  for  the  purposes  of  local  government, 
to  be  administered  by  a  board  of  trustees  composed  of  a  clerk  and  two 
justices  of  the  peace,  elected  every  two  years  by  popular  vote  in  the 
township.  This  board  of  trustees  is  to  have  control  of  the  taxes  and 
finances,  roads  and  bridges  of  the  township,  to  assess  the  taxable  prop- 
erty of  the  township,  and  report  the  same  to  the  county  commissioners 
for  revision.  The  clerk  of  the  board  of  trustees  is  also  the  treasurer  of 
the  township.  It  also  provided  that  in  every  township  a  school  com- 
mittee of  three  persons  should  be  elected  every  two  years.  Other  county 
officers  whose  election  was  provided  for  were  the  clerk  of  Superior 
Court,  to  serve  for  four  years,  and  a  sheriff  and  a  coroner,  to  serve  for 
two  years.  A  constable  was  to  be  elected  in  each  township,  and  two 
justices  of  the  peace,  to  serve  for  two  years;  and  in  townships  con- 
taining cities  or  towns,  a  larger  number  of  justices  could  be  elected. 

The  result  of  these  changes  was:  (1)  All  county  and  township  offices 
were  made  elective  by  popular  vote;  (2)  the  township  was  made  a  local 
administrative  unit  separate  from  the  county;  (3)  the  general  adminis- 
trative functions  of  the  justices  of  the  peace  were  taken  away  except 
in  the  local  affairs  of  the  township,  and  their  duties  were  limited  more 
especially  to  judicial  matters,  civil  and  criminal,  committed  to  their 
jurisdiction;  (4)  the  county  administration  was  given  to  the  board  of 
county  commissioners,  including  the  power  of  taxation  except  as  to 
local  matters  in  the  township,  the  roads  and  bridges,  public  buildings, 
care  of  the  poor,  and  the  management  of  the  public  schools;  (5)  the 
judicial  power  of  the  old  county  court  was  distributed  between  the 
justices  of  the  peace  and  the  Superior  Court,  with  the  power  in  the  clerk 


In  North  Carolina  2S 

of  the  Superior  Court,  called  at  first  the  judge  of  probate,  to  take  pro- 
bate of  wills  and  deeds,  to  appoint  executors,  administrators,  and 
guardians,  and  to  control  their  settlements,  to  bind  apprentices,  and 
to  hear  petitions  for  dower,  partition,  etc. 

5.  CouNTT  Government  After  1876.  The  dual  form  of  township  and 
county  government  was  not  satisfactory,  because  It  was  entirely  differ- 
ent from  what  the  people  had  been  so  long  accustomed  to,  and  especially 
because  of  the  newly  enfranchised  negro  vote  being  considered  a  menace 
to  the  safe  administration  of  local  affairs.  An  amendment  to  the  Con- 
stitution in  1875,  now  Art.  VII,  sec.  14,  authorized  the  Legislature  to 
change  the  system  of  county  government  as  it  should  think  best,  with 
no  provision  for  uniformity.  Following  this  authority,  and  beginning 
with  the  Legislature  of  1876,  most  important  changes  were  made,  out  of 
which  has  finally  grown  our  present  system. 

(1)  The  township  was  retained  as  a  subdivision  of  the  county  for 
general  administrative  purposes,  but  its  separate  powers  as  a  local 
government  were  taken  away,  subject  to  the  power  of  the  Legislature 
to  create  such  separate  powers  in  any  case  by  special  legislation.  The 
justices  of  the  peace  in  the  township  were  retained,  but  they  were  to 
be  elected  by  the  Legislature,  three  for  each  township,  and  one  addi- 
tional justice  for  each  one  thousand  population  in  case  of  cities  and 
towns.  They  were  to  hold  office  for  six  years  instead  of  two  years,  and 
vacancies  were  filled  in  some  instances  by  the  Governor  and  in  others 
by  the  clerk  of  the  Superior  Court.  Their  powers  were  chiefly  judicial, 
to  be  exercised  in  the  township  or  elsewhere  in  the  county.  The  prin- 
cipal administrative  duty  imposed  upon  the  justices  in  the  township 
was  the  supervision  and  control  of  the  public  roads  and  bridges  estab- 
lished in  the  township.  For  this  purpose  the  justices  of  the  township 
were  made  a  board  of  supervisors,  and  authorized  to  divide  the  town- 
ship roads  into  sections,  appoint  overseers  for  each  section,  and  allot 
the  hands  subject  to  road  duty;  they  were  also  required  personally  to 
Inspect  the  roads  and  make  a  report  of  their  condition  to  the  Superior 
Court  of  the  county.  The  board  of  supervisors  also  had  the  power  to 
lay  out  and  discontinue  cartways,  as  distinguished  from  public  roads. 

Under  the  law  now  in  force  the  justices  of  the  peace  are  in  most  cases 
elected  by  the  popular  vote  in  the  townships,  to  hold  oflice  for  two  years, 
the  number  being  three  or  more,  as  the  Legislature  may  provide;  but 
the  Legislature  also  exercises  the  power  to  appoint  justices  in  the 
different  counties.  The  duties  of  the  justices  as  supervisors  of  the 
roads  of  the  townships  still  exist,  in  the  absence  of  special  road  legisla- 
tion; and  as  these  duties  are  to  be  performed  without  compensation, 
the  dignity  of  the  office  and  the  complaints  of  the  people  are  to  be  con- 
sidered full  satisfaction.  They  were  also  authorized  at  first  to  elect  a 
road  supervisor  in  the  township  to  look  after  the  condition  of  the  roads, 
collect  fines,  etc.,  but  this  office  has  been  discontinued  and  the  overseer 


24  County  Government 

attends  to  this  duty.  The  only  other  officer  In  the  township  is  the  con- 
stable, who  is  the  executive  officer  of  the  justices'  courts.  He  is  elected 
every  two  years  by  popular  vote. 

(2)  The  board  of  county  commissioners  was  retained  as  the  admin- 
istrative officers  of  the  county,  but  instead  of  being  elected  by  the  popu- 
lar vote  they  were  elected  by  the  justices  of  the  peace  of  the  county 
acting  as  a  body.  There  were  to  be  from  three  to  five  commissioners  to 
serve  for  two  years.  Their  general  county  functions  were  the  same  as 
before,  but  they  could  not  levy  taxes,  purchase  realty,  remove  public 
buildings,  construct  or  repair  bridges  costing  more  than  $500,  borrow 
money,  or  change  townships,  without  a  concurrence  of  a  majority  of  the 
justices  of  the  peace  of  the  county,  such  concurrence  to  be  given  in  a 
meeting  with  the  commissioners.  The  justices  also  had  control  over 
the  election  machinery  of  the  county,  to  fix  voting  precincts,  appoint 
registrars  and  judges,  etc.  They  were  also  given  the  power  to  abolish 
the  office  of  county  treasurer,  if  they  thought  best,  the  duties  of  the 
office  in  that  case  devolving  upon  the  sheriff,  and  they  could  also  restore 
the  office  after  they  had  abolished  it.  This  power  is  still  given  in  the 
statute  (Rev.,  1395),  though  perhaps  not  often  exercised.  The  power 
of  the  justices  to  act  with  the  commissioners,  as  above  stated,  was  re- 
pealed in  1895,  and  is  no  longer  found  except,  perhaps,  in  a  few  counties 
by  special  enactment. 

In  1895  the  election  of  county  commissioners  was  again  given  to  the 
popular  vote,  and  it  has  so  remained,  but  the  Legislature  has  from  time 
to  time  exercised  its  power  to  change  the  number  of  commissioners, 
and  it  could  also  provide  some  other  method  of  electing  them.  Vacancies 
in  the  board  are  filled  by  the  clerk  of  the  Superior  Court. 

The  county  commissioners  now  meet  at  the  courthouse  on  the  first 
Monday  in  each  month  and  transact  the  county  business.  They  have 
the  various  powers  enumerated  in  the  statutes,  and  such  other  implied 
powers  as  are  necessary  to  perform  their  public  duties.  They  have  the 
power  to  contract  debts  for  the  necessary  expense  of  the  county  without 
the  legislative  assent  or  the  popular  vote,  and  for  matters  not  coming 
under  necessary  expense  they  must  obtain  both  the  legislative  assent 
and  a  majority  of  the  qualified  vote.  The  Legislature  may,  however, 
impose  restrictions  upon  the  power  to  incur  debts  even  for  necessary 
expense,  and  generally  control  their  powers  of  government.  Among  a 
variety  of  powers,  they  may  purchase  property,  construct  and  care  for 
public  buildings,  divide  the  county  into  townships,  levy  taxes  and  pro- 
vide for  collection,  establish  and  control  roads,  ferries,  and  bridges, 
grant  licenses,  borrow  money,  take  the  bonds  of  the  county  officers,  and 
provide  for  the  poor  of  the  county.  The  register  of  deeds  is  ex  officio 
clerk  of  the  board  of  commissioners.  The  county  commissioners  also 
had  control  of  the  elections  in  the  county,  but  this  was  changed  later, 
and  now  there  is  a  county  board  of  elections  appointed  for  each  county 
by  the  State  Board  of  Elections. 


In  North  Caeolina  26 

Under  the  act  of  1876  the  county  commissioners  also  constituted  the 
hoard  of  education  of  the  county,  with  the  register  of  deeds  as  clerk 
and  the  county  treasurer  as  treasurer  of  the  school  fund.  They  divided 
the  county  into  school  districts,  appointed  school  committees  for  each 
district,  and  appointed  a  county  examiner.  Later  a  separate  board  of 
education  was  created  for  the  county,  composed  of  three  members  elected 
by  the  Legislature,  and  a  county  superintendent  elected  by  the  board  of 
education,  who  was  also  the  secretary  of  the  board.  By  the  recent 
legislation  in  1917  the  members  of  the  board  of  education  are  made 
elective  by  the  Legislature  from  nominations  made  in  the  county  pri- 
maries or  conventions,  and  the  term  of  office  is  six  years.  The  county 
superintendent,  formerly  elective  in  some  counties,  was,  by  the  same 
act,  made  elective  by  the  board  of  education. 

The  other  county  officers  are  all  elected  by  the  popular  vote,  as  here- 
tofore. The  clerk  of  the  Superior  Court  has  the  duty  of  keeping  the 
records  of  the  court,  and  has  also  important  judicial  functions  in  what 
are  called  special  proceedings  and  probate  duties.  In  addition  to  the 
appointment  of  administrators  and  guardians  for  particular  estates, 
the  clerk  may  appoint  a  public  administrator  and  a  public  guardian,  who 
are  to  take  charge  of  the  estates  of  decedents  and  orphans  for  which  no 
other  provision  is  made. 

The  register  of  deeds,  in  addition  to  his  duties  as  clerk  of  the  board 
of  commissioners,  records  deeds  and  other  papers  required  to  be  reg- 
istered, keeps  the  records  of  the  tax  returns,  and  makes  out  the  tax 
books  for  the  collection  of  taxes.  He  also  issues  the  marriage  licenses 
and  keeps  the  records  of  marriages;  acts  as  entry-taker;  keeps  the  re- 
ports, and  makes  return  of  elections. 

The  sheriff  is  the  executive  officer  of  the  Superior  Court,  and  may 
also  serve  process  from  a  justice.  He  is  also  the  tax  collector  unless 
a  special  tax  collector  is  appointed,  and  has  the  care  of  the  jail  and 
prisoners.  Incidental  to  his  duties  as  court  executive,  he  is  required 
to  allot  homestead  and  dower,  and  to  hold  inquisitions  of  lunacy.  He 
is  also  the  chief  peace  officer  of  the  county,  and  can  summon  the  power 
of  the  county  to  assist  him  in  preserving  the  peace  and  enforcing  the 
law. 

The  county  treasurer,  where  there  Is  one,  is  required  to  take  charge 
of  the  county  funds,  and  disburse  the  same  under  the  order  of  the 
county  commissioners;  and  also  to  keep  the  school  funds  and  disburse 
them  under  the  order  of  the  board  of  education.  This  office  has  been 
abolished  in  some  instances  by  the  action  of  the  justices  of  the  peace, 
and  in  others  by  the  Legislature;  and  recently  local  trust  companies  or 
banks  have  been  designated  to  hold  the  county  funds  without  compensa- 
tion other  than  the  advantage  of  having  the  temporary  use  of  the 
money. 


26  County  Government 

The  county  surveyor  is  not  now  a  very  important  office.  His  duties 
are  to  make  all  surveys  that  may  be  necessary  in  connection  with  the 
general  county  business,  and  frequently  surveys  under  order  of  court 
are  made  by  him  unless  the  parties  designate  some  other  person. 

The  coroner's  duties  are  to  hold  inquests  in  case  of  the  death  of  a 
person  under  unknown  or  suspicious  circumstances,  and  to  bind  over 
to  the  Superior  Court  any  person  foUnd  to  be  connected  with  the  crime, 
if  any  was  committed.  He  also  takes  the  place  of  the  sheriff  in  the 
service  of  the  process  of  the  court,  where  the  sheriff  is  interested  and 
cannot  act. 

Courts  inferior  to  the  Superior  Court  have  been  established  in  many 
counties,  under  various  names,  as  inferior  courts,  county  courts,  crim- 
inal courts,  recorders'  courts,  etc.,  but  they  are  not  like  the  old  county 
courts  except  in  exercising  certain  civil  and  criminal  jurisdiction,  con- 
current with  that  of  a  justice  of  the  peace  or  of  the  Superior  Court. 

For  special  purposes  various  subordinate  divisions  have  been  created 
from  time  to  time,  such  as  fence  law  districts,  special  road  districts, 
drainage  districts,  special  taxing  districts  for  schools,  etc.;  but  these 
are  not  a  part  of  the  general  system  of  county  government,  and  are  only 
intended  to  carry  out  some  special  purpose. 

The  county  commissioners  are  required  to  audit  the  accounts  and 
make  settlements  with  the  officers  handling  the  public  money  every 
year.  In  the  performance  of  this  duty,  they  may  also  elect  "three  dis- 
creet, intelligent  tax-paying  citizens"  as  a  "finance  committee,"  to  in- 
vestigate the  accounts  of  the  county  officers  as  to  receipts  and  disburse- 
ments, require  complete  settlements,  and  publish  the  result  of  their 
investigation.  This  is  left  to  the  discretion  of  the  commissioners,  and 
in  practice  it  is  not  often  done.  To  supply  the  place  of  such  a  com- 
mittee, in  many  counties  a  special  auditor  has  been  appointed,  with 
many  and  varied  important  duties  specified  in  the  acts  authorizing  his 
appointment. 

The  local  government  in  the  State  is,  then,  one  in  which  the  county 
is  still  the  unit,  as  it  was  before  1868,  with  no  subordinate  local  govern- 
ment by  townships.  It  is  like  the  Pennsylvania  plan,  in  that  the  com- 
missioners chosen  from  the  county  at  large  manage  the  affairs.  It  is 
representative  in  that  most  of  the  officers  are  elected  by  the  popular 
vote,  and  are  therefore  directly  answerable  to  the  people.  The  danger 
from  adverse  local  conditions  may  be  obviated  by  the  Legislature  retain- 
ing the  power  to  make  special  enactments  to  cover  special  cases.  The 
system  is  lacking  in  uniformity  in  that  respect,  and  is  perhaps  not  the 
best  form  of  government  that  could  be  devised;  but  no  system  is  perfect, 
and  as  the  State  is  a  rapidly  growing  commonwealth,  we  may  expect 
changes  to  be  made  to  meet  the  demands  of  such  growth. 


In  Nobth  Carolina  27 

Sources  of  Infobmation: 

Blackstone's  Commentaries. 

Fairlie's  Local  Government  in  Counties,  Towns,  and  Villages. 

Goodnow,  Comparative  Administrative  Law. 

Howard,  Introduction  to  Local  Constitutional  History. 

Phelan's  History  of  Tennessee. 

Ashe's  History  of  North  Carolina. 

Hawks'  History  of  North  Carolina. 

Wheeler's  History  of  North  Carolina. 

Constitution  and  Statutes  of  North  Carolina. 


28  County  Government 


CHAPTER  III 
County  Offices  in  North  Carolina 

Judge  Gilbeet  T.  Stephenson,   Winston-Salem,  N.   G. 

At  the  second  meeting  of  the  North  Carolina  Club  at  the  University, 
October  14th,  Judge  Gilbert  T.  Stephenson,  of  Winston-Salem,  discussed 
County  Offices — Legal  Duties  and  Courthouse  Customs  in  Carolina. 

I  purposely  omit  the  latter  half  of  my  subject,  said  the  speaker. 
Courthouse  customs — that  is,  the  practices  of  county  officers  that  are 
either  in  violation  of  the  law  or  else  in  addition  to  the  requirements  of 
law — are  purely  local,  and  vary  with  the  personalities  of  some  3,000 
officers  in  our  100  counties.  These  customs,  which  furnish  a  most  inter- 
esting subject  to  study,  must  be  left  to  the  club  members  here  for 
investigation  in  their  home  counties. 

County  Officers 

The  Constitution  of  North  Carolina  provides  for  the  election  of  the 
following  county  officers:  clerk  of  the  Superior  Court,  sheriff,  coroner, 
treasurer,  register  of  deeds,  surveyor,  and  five  commissioners.  But  it 
also  provides  that  the  General  Assembly  shall  have  full  power  to  modify, 
change,  or  abrogate  any  or  all  of  the  provisions  of  the  articles  naming 
county  officers,  and  to  substitute  others  in  their  place. 

In  addition  to  these  constitutional  county  officers,  others  have  been 
created  by  public  or  public-local  statutes.  The  following  counties,  at 
least,  have  county  courts  with  a  judge,  usually  called  a  recorder,  and  a 
clerk;  and,  if  the  court  has  criminal  jurisdiction,  a  solicitor:  Cumber- 
land, Edgecombe,  Forsyth,  Nash,  New  Hanover,  Pitt,  Robeson,  Stanly, 
Washington,  and  Wayne. 

The  following  have  taken  the  road  work  out  of  the  hands  of  the  county 
commissioners  and  entrusted  It  to  a  highway  commission,  which,  as  a 
rule,  has  a  highway  engineer,  either  one  of  its  number,  as  in  Forsyth, 
or  a  specially  employed  engineer,  as  in  most  of  the  other  counties: 
Davidson,  Wake,  Lee,  Sampson,  Rutherford,  and  Wayne. 

Practically  all  of  the  counties  have  a  county  physician,  a  superin- 
tendent of  schools,  and  a  superintendent  of  the  county  home.  Thirteen 
have  whole-time  county  health  officers. 

Some  of  the  counties,  as  Buncombe,  Columbus,  Durham,  and  Edge- 
combe, have  county  attorneys  to  advise  all  the  officers;  others,  like 
Forsyth,  leave  it  to  the  respective  officers  to  retain  their  own  attorneys. 
In  a  few  of  the  counties,  notably  Rockingham  and  Forsyth,  the  farm 
demonstrator  is  regarded  as  a  county  officer. 


In  Noeth  Cakolina  29 

Every  county  has  a  board  of  education  and  a  board  of  elections. 

The  county  auditor  is  an  officer  rapidly  growing  in  favor.  Already 
there  are  auditors  for  Buncombe,  Edgecombe,  Forsyth,  Franklin,  New- 
Hanover,  Gaston,  Guilford,  Iredell,  Pitt,  Wake,  and  Robeson. 

Let  me  say  that  these  lists  are  not  complete  because  the  Public-Local 
Laws  of  the  last  session  of  the  General  Assembly  are  not  yet  off  the 
press. 

The  newest  county  office  is  that  of  superintendent  of  public  welfare. 
It  was  provided  for  by  the  last  Legislature,  and  Forsyth  is  so  far  the 
only  county  in  the  State  that  has  made  an  appropriation  for  that  office; 
and  Forsyth  has  not  yet  found  the  man  for  the  place. 

Not  counting  the  several  deputies  in  the  office  of  the  clerk  of  courts, 
the  sheriff,  and  the  register  of  deeds,  and,  of  course,  not  counting  the 
constables  and  the  justices  of  the  peace,  who  are  township  officers,  and 
allowing  only  three  members  each  to  the  boards  of  education,  elections, 
and  commissioners,  the  roster  of  county  officers  in  North  Carolina 
includes  the  following: 

Clerk  of  the  Superior  Court 

Sheriff 

Register  of  Deeds 

Coroner 

Treasurer 

Surveyor 

Superintendent  of  Health 

Superintendent  of  Schools 

Superintendent  of  County  Home 

Superintendent  of  Reformatory  or  House  of  Correction 

Superintendent  of  Public  "Welfare 

Board  of  Education 

Board  of  Commissioners 

Board  of  Elections 

Highway  Commission 

Auditor 

Judge,  Clerk,  and  Solicitor  of  County  Court 

County  Attorney 

Farm  Demonstrator 

Standard-Keeper — 30  In  all. 

Some  of  these  are  elected  by  the  people,  others  are  appointed  by  the 
Governor,  others  are  appointed  by  the  board  of  county  commissioners. 

The  Short  Ballot 

In  the  last  general  election  there  were  twenty-five  different  candi- 
dates on  each  of  the  three  party  tickets  in  Forsyth,  seventy-five  in  all. 


30  County  Government 

There  were  thirteen  names  on  each  of  the  three  State  tickets,  not  to 
mention  the  candidates  for  constable  and  justice  of  the  peace  on  the 
township  tickets.  Each  voter  in  Forsyth  County,  in  theory,  had  fifty 
different  candidates  to  vote  for  or  against,  out  of  a  total  of  150  candi- 
dates. It  goes  without  saying  that  he  did  not  give  attention  to  the 
merits  or  demerits  of  one-tenth  of  the  men  he  voted  for  or  against.  As 
a  rule  he  voted  his  straight  party  ticket  blindfolded. 

Manifestly,  one  of  the  first  reforms  needed  in  county  government  in 
North  Carolina  is  the  shorter  ballot. 

Duties  of  County  Officers 

The  names  of  the  county  ofiices  largely  indicate  their  duties. 

1.  The  duties  of  the  county  commissioners  alone  are  prescribed  by 
the  Constitution,  and  they  are  as  follows: 

"To  exercise  a  general  supervision  and  control  of  the  penal  and 
charitable  institutions,  schools,  roads,  bridges;  to  levy  county  taxes, 
and  manage  the  finances  of  the  county  as  may  be  prescribed  by  law. 
The  register  of  deeds  shall  be  ex  officio  clerk  of  the  board  of  commis- 
sioners." 

2.  I  would  not  undertake  to  enumerate  all  the  duties  of  the  clerk  of 
the  Superior  Court.  The  statutes  provide  thirty-two  separate  and  dis- 
tinct records  to  be  kept  by  him.  In  the  official  fee  bill  there  are  seventy- 
five  different  items  of  service  for  which  he  must  make  a  stated  charge. 
It  is  his  duty  to  issue  all  processes  of  the  Superior  Court,  such  as  sum- 
mons, subpoenas,  executions;  he  files  all  papers  and  records  many  of 
them;  he  keeps  a  record  of  all  court  proceedings;  he  appoints  guard- 
ians, executors,  and  administrators,  and  receives  and  audits  their  ac- 
counts; he  conducts  special  proceedings;  and,  except  when  court  is  in 
session,  he  acts  in  the  place  of  the  judge  in  the  performance  of  many 
judicial  functions.  It  seems  that  the  Legislature  has  imposed  upon  the 
clerk  of  the  Superior  Court  all  the  duties  that  did  not  come  directly 
in  line  with  the  duties  of  the  other  offices. 

3.  The  duties  of  the  sheriff  are  almost  as  multifarious.  He  serves 
the  processes  which  the  clerk  issues,  he  makes  arrests  and  keeps  custody 
of  prisoners.  The  statute  provides  that  the  sheriff  may  either  be  the 
county  jailer  himself,  or  he  may  name  one  of  his  deputies.  In  the  latter 
case  the  sheriff  is  responsible  on  his  bond  for  the  faithful  performance 
of  the  duties  as  jailer  by  the  deputy.  In  addition  to  his  duties  as  the 
executive  branch  of  the  county  government— that  is,  in  executing  the 
orders  of  the  court — he  is  tax  collector  in  nearly  all  the  counties.  It 
is  not  so  inconsistent,  as  it  would  at  first  seem,  that  the  sheriff  should 
also  be  the  tax  collector.  He  and  his  deputies  are  called  into  every 
nook  and  corner  of  the  county  as  no  other  officers  are.  The  sheriff, 
more  than  any  other  officer,  knows  every  man,  woman,  and  child  in 


In  North  Carolina  31 

the  county.  Consequently,  he  and  his  deputies  are  in  the  best  position 
to  collect  the  taxes,  and,  if  necessary,  to  force  collection  by  summary 
proceedings. 

4.  The  duties  of  the  register  of  deeds  are:  (1)  To  file  and  record 
deeds,  deeds  of  trust,  mortgages,  bills  of  sale,  and  contracts,  and  to  keep 
the  records  properly  indexed;  and  (2)  to  issue  and  keep  a  record  of  all 
marriage  licenses.  The  latter  is  probably  the  most  exacting  duty  of 
the  register  of  deeds.  A  recent  decision  of  the  Supreme  Court,  inter- 
preting anew  a  long-existing  statute,  imposes  upon  the  register  of  deeds 
the  duty  of  ascertaining  the  correct  age  of  the  girl  on  the  pain  of  being 
amerced  in  the  amount  of  $200  for  issuing  license  for  a  girl  under  age. 
In  order  to  protect  himself,  he  must  do  more  than  merely  require  a 
formal  oath  of  the  applicant  for  the  license.  The  register  of  deeds  is 
also  charged  (3)  with  the  duty  of  computing  the  taxes  and  making  two 
lists  of  them,  turning  one  over  to  the  sheriff  and  the  other  into  the 
office  of  the  county  commissioners.  The  tax  work  has  been  taken  from 
him  in  some  of  the  counties  that  have  auditors.  An  interesting  instance 
of  the  confusion  of  the  duties  of  county  offices  is  the  following:  The 
law  requires  the  sheriff  to  give  a  receipt  to  every  one  who  pays  any  taxes 
but  does  not  provide  who  shall  make  the  receipt.  In  some  counties  it 
is  always  made  by  the  register  of  deeds,  in  others  by  the  sheriff,  and  in 
still  others  by  the  auditor.  So  we  have  the  anomaly  of  one  officer 
making  a  blank  receipt  for  the  other  to  sign  and  issue. 

5.  The  duty  of  the  treasurer  is  to  receive,  keep,  and  disburse  county 
funds. 

6.  That  of  the  coroner  to  inquire  into  the  cause  of  death  and  hold 
inquest  over  the  body  of  any  one  who  diss  under  suspicious  circum- 
stances. Moreover,  the  coroner  has  to  serve  processes  on  the  sheriff 
when  the  latter  happens  to  be  a  party  to  any  suit  or  proceeding. 

A  New  County  Officer 

I  need  not  enumerate  the  duties  of  the  various  other  county  officers 
who  are  acting  under  special  statutes,  but,  inasmuch  as  the  office  of 
Superintendent  of  Public  Welfare  is  likely  to  be  one  of  increasing  inter- 
est, since  North  Carolina  now  has  a  State  Board  of  Public  Welfare,  I 
venture  to  quote  the  duties  of  the  county  superintendent  as  prescribed 
by  the  recent  statute: 

To  have,  under  control  of  the  county  commissioners,  the  care  and 
supervision  of  the  poor  and  to  administer  the  poor  funds; 

To  act  as  agent  of  the  state  board  in  any  work  to  be  done  by  the  state 
board  within  the  county; 

Under  the  direction  of  the  state  board,  to  look  after  and  to  keep  up 
with  the  condition  of  persons  discharged  from  hospitals  for  the  insane 
and  from  other  State  institutions; 


32  County  Government 

To  have  oversight  of  the  prisoners  in  the  county  on  parole  from  peni- 
tentiaries, reformatories,  and  all  parole  prisoners  in  the  county; 

To  have  oversight  of  dependent  and  delinquent  children,  and  espe- 
cially those  on  parole  or  probation; 

To  have  oversight  of  all  prisoners  in  the  county  on  probation; 

To  promote  wholesome  recreation  in  the  county,  and  to  enforce  such 
laws  as  regulate  commercial  amusement; 

Under  the  direction  of  the  state  board,  to  have  oversight  of  dependent 
children  placed  in  said  county  by  the  state  board; 

To  assist  the  state  board  in  finding  employment  for  the  unemployed; 

To  investigate  into  the  causes  of  distress,  under  the  direction  of  the 
state  board,  and  to  make  such  other  investigations  in  the  interest  of 
social  welfare  as  the  state  board  may  direct. 

Are  They  Fully  Occupied? 

Whether  the  duties  of  the  officers  are  enough  to  keep  them  busy  day 
after  day,  year  in  and  year  out,  as  business  men  are  busy,  is  a  question 
hard  to  answer.  Certainly  in  none  of  the  counties,  not  even  in  the  most 
populous,  are  the  register  of  deeds  and  his  deputies  busy  all  day  long 
recording  papers  and  issuing  marriage  licenses.  But  in  all  the  counties 
to  a  certain  extent,  and  in  the  rural  counties  to  a  greater  extent,  a  good 
part  of  the  time  of  the  register  is  taken  up  in  assisting  people  to  find 
desired  records.  The  adeptness  of  some  of  the  registers  of  deeds,  who 
have  been  in  office  a  long  time,  in  finding  records  is  marvelous.  I  recall 
this  last  summer  tracing  a  title  in  one  of  the  rural  counties  of  the 
State.  The  register  of  deeds  could  tell  me  without  hesitation  the 
several  links  in  the  chain  of  titles  as  far  back  as  I  cared  to  go.  He  could 
probably  do  this  for  a  majority  of  the  larger  tracts  of  land  in  the 
county.  So  one  may  say  that  the  register  of  deeds  In  most  counties  is 
kept  busy  at  the  work  required  by  statute  and  in  accommodating  the 
patrons  of  his  office. 

And  what  is  true  of  the  register  is  equally  true  of  the  clerk.  Com- 
paratively few  of  the  patrons  of  the  office  are  familiar  enough  with  the 
records  to  find  them  without  the  clerk,  and  probably  one-half  of  his 
time  is  occupied  in  accommodating  the  patrons  of  his  office. 

Except  in  the  urban  counties,  the  sheriff  and  his  deputies  are  certainly 
not  busy  all  the  time  serving  processes  and  collecting  taxes.  But,  like 
a  physician,  they  have  to  hold  themselves  in  readiness  to  be  called  at 
any  time  to  serve  a  process  or  arrest  a  criminal. 

The  coroner  and  the  surveyor  are  probably  the  least  employed  officers 
of  the  county,  and  naturally  they  are  least  compensated.  In  the  early 
days,  when  there  was  an  abundance  of  public  land  to  be  granted  by  the 
State,  the  office  of  public  surveyor  was  of  great  importance.  But  now 
that  nearly  all  of  the  public  land  has  been  taken  up,  the  surveyor  has 
very  little  to  do.    And  the  office  of  coroner  Is  almost  equally  antiquated. 


In  North  Carolina  33 

Only  when  there  is  a  suspicious  death  in  the  county  is  he  called  upon 
to  make  an  inquest.  But,  inasmuch  as  he  is  paid  only  for  the  services 
rendered,  and  as  he  is  needed  on  these  special  occasions,  the  office  of 
coroner  should  probably  be  kept  intact. 

Some  Wise  Changes 

I  wish  to  speak  particularly  of  the  new  office  of  auditor  and  of  the  old 
office  of  treasurer.  Forty-one  counties  of  the  State  have  already  abol- 
ished the  office  of  treasurer  and  have  made  some  bank  the  depository 
of  the  county  funds.  This  system  has  worked  admirably  wherever  It 
has  been  tried.  Under  the  old  system,  when  one  had  a  bill  against  the 
county,  he  presented  the  bill  to  the  county  commissioners;  they  ordered 
it  paid;  their  clerk  issued  a  voucher  on  the  treasurer;  the  treasurer 
issued  a  check  on  some  bank.  In  this  way  the  creditor  had  three  sepa- 
rate and  distinct  transactions  before  he  could  get  his  money.  Under 
the  new  system,  when  a  bill  is  presented,  it  is  approved  by  the  auditor, 
ordered  paid  by  the  commissioners,  a  check  is  forthwith  issued,  and  the 
creditor  gets  his  money. 

Let  me  mention  two  instances  of  handling  county  funds  in  Forsyth 
that  obtained  before  the  auditor  modernized  the  bookkeeping.  The 
county  used  to  have  a  special  treasurer  of  the  road  fund.  The  sheriff 
collected  the  road  fund  as  he  did  other  taxes  and  put  it  to  his  credit  at 
some  bank.  The  sheriff  had  to  pay  the  road  fund  over  to  the  county 
treasurer,  and  the  latter  over  to  the  treasurer  of  the  road  fund.  Mr. 
Smith,  for  instance,  had  a  bill  of  $1,000  against  the  county  for  furnish- 
ing top-soil  for  a  road.  He  presented  his  bill  to  the  road  board  and 
had  it  approved.  The  treasurer  called  upon  the  sheriff;  the  sheriff 
issued  a  check  on  his  account  in  Bank  A;  the  county  treasurer  made  a 
deposit  of  the  sheriff's  check  in  Bank  B  and  issued  a  check  on  that 
account  to  the  treasurer  of  the  road  fund;  the  treasurer  of  the  road 
fund  deposited  the  treasurer's  check  in  Bank  C,  and  issued  a  check  on 
that  bank  to  Mr.  Smith.  After  all  these  unnecessary  and,  as  it  appears 
in  the  light  of  efficient  bookkeeping,  ridiculous  steps  Mr.  Smith  gets 
pay  for  his  top-soil. 

Or  another  instance  almost  as  striking.  Under  the  old  system  the 
same  man  was  secretary  and  treasurer  of  the  road  board.  When  the 
bill  was  to  be  paid  out  of  the  road  fund,  he,  as  secretary,  issues  a 
voucher  to  himself  as  treasurer,  and  he,  as  treasurer,  issued  a  check. 
And  this  custom  went  on  and  on  until  the  auditor  showed  the  supreme 
folly  of  it. 

It  is  useless  for  me  to  say  that  I  recommend  the  abolishment  of  the 
office  of  treasurer  in  every  county  in  North  Carolina  that  has  a  repu- 
table bank  within  its  borders.  But  along  with  the  abolishment  of  this 
office  I  would  recommend  the  creation  of  the  office  of  auditor  for  every 
county. 
3 


34  County  Goveenment 

An  Auditor's  Duties 

I  would  make  it  the  duty  of  the  auditor  to  audit  the  books  of  every 
officer  in  the  county  every  year  and  render  to  the  public  a  statement 
of  the  finances  of  each  office  in  language  so  simple  that  the  average  tax- 
payer could  understand  it.  I  believe  in  the  annual  auditing  of  county 
offices  not  only  for  the  saving  it  would  mean  to  the  county  but  for  the 
protection  it  would  afford  the  county  officers. 

The  average  clerk,  register,  or  sheriff  is  not  an  expert  bookkeeper; 
he  has  not  been  trained  to  keep  intricate  accounts  accurately.  New  to 
his  office,  he  is  naturally  confused  by  its  duties.  Ordinarily  he  asks  his 
predecessor  or  deputy  to  stay  until  he  can  get  the  run  of  things.  Each 
one  does  as  his  predecessor  did.  And  in  this  way  useless  customs  are 
kept  up.  Sometimes  he  gets  into  trouble,  not  because  he  is  dishonest, 
but  because  he  is  unbusiness-like  in  handling  moneys.  A  county  auditor 
would  help  to  get  him  started  straight  in  the  beginning,  check  him  up 
each  quarter  or  each  year,  and  save  him  from  possible  humiliation  and 
the  county  from  tedious  litigation. 

I  have  had  public  auditors  tell  me  interesting  stories  of  shortages 
found  in  the  accounts  of  county  officers,  traceable  not  to  rascality  at 
all,  but  to  inadequate  and  careless  bookkeeping.  I  know  another  in- 
stance in  which  a  city  school  fund  was  enriched  several  thousand  dol- 
lars by  an  auditor's  checking  up  certain  sources  of  the  school  fund. 
Inasmuch  as  the  auditor  is  an  expert,  it  may  not  be  practical  to  have 
a  whole-time  auditor  for  each  county,  but  a  group  of  rural  counties  may 
unite  in  the  employment  of  an  auditor  to  give  part-time  to  each,  which 
would  serve  every  purpose.  Or  what  might  be  better  than  the  employ- 
ment of  a  whole-time  auditor  would  be  the  employment  of  a  professional 
auditor  at  so  much  per  diem. 

Are  County  Officers  Overpaid? 

I  was  asked  to  discuss  under  this  head  the  adequacy  or  inadequacy 
of  the  compensations  of  the  county  officers.  Under  the  fee  system  that 
still  obtains  in  about  half  of  our  counties,  it  is  absolutely  impossible 
to  tell  or  to  find  out  the  actual  compensation  that  an  officer  gets.  An 
audit  would  not  reveal  it.  Under  this  system  the  fees  are  the  property 
of  the  officer.  He  can  collect  them  or  not,  as  he  pleases.  In  times  past, 
one  of  the  most  frequent  ways  in  which  an  officer  paid  his  political 
debts  was  by  performing  official  duties  without  exacting  the  customary 
fees.  For  instance,  under  that  system  the  register  would  charge  the 
legal  fees  on  papers  presented  for  registration  by  his  political  enemies, 
and  record  free  of  charge  similar  papers  presented  by  his  political 
friends.  The  same  was  true  of  the  clerk  and  the  sheriff  in  performing 
the  duties  of  their  offices.  Attention  has  often  been  called  to  the  fact 
that  more  sheriffs  lose  money  in  office  than  make  money  out  of  their 


In  Noeth  Caeolina  35 

office.  The  reason  Is  that,  out  of  the  goodness  of  their  hearts  or  in  order 
to  pay  political  debts,  they  do  not  charge  the  legitimate  commissions 
or  fees.  , 

County  Fee  Funds 

But  the  counties  are  gradually  placing  their  officers  on  a  salary  basis 
solely.  That  is,  the  officers  are  paid  definite  salaries  and  are  required 
to  collect  legitimate  fees  for  all  services.  In  nearly  fifty  counties  the 
fees  are  the  property  of  the  county  and  not  of  the  officer,  and  it  is  as 
much  his  duty  to  collect  these  fees  as  it  is  to  record  the  papers  or  serve 
the  processes  or  do  the  other  services  for  which  the  fee  is  charged.  The 
records  show  that  in  one  year  Wake  County  saved  over  $12,000  by 
having  its  officers  on  the  salary  basis;  $5,000  of  this  going  to  the  school 
fund  and  $4,000  to  the  road  fund.  Forsyth  has  been  on  the  salary  basis, 
with  the  exception  of  the  sheriff's  deputies,  since  1907.  During  the  last 
decade  the  county  has  in  this  way  saved  approximately  $75,000. 

Constructire  Suggestions 

I  would  suggest  that  every  officer  and  every  deputy  except,  possibly, 
the  coroner  and  surveyor,  whose  duties  are  occasional  and  uncertain, 
be  put  on  a  salary  basis. 

The  only  suggestions  that  I  have  to  offer  to  your  study  of  county 
government,  as  already  indicated,  are: 

(1)  The  abolishment  of  the  office  of  county  treasurer  in  every  county. 

(2)  Creation  of  the  office  of  auditor  in  every  county,  with  the  annual 
auditing  of  the  books  of  every  officer  and  the  publishing  in  simple  lan- 
guage of  these  reports. 

(3)  Placing  county  officers  upon  a  salary  basis  solely;  and,  as  nat- 
urally follows,  the  annual  accounting  by  the  officer  to  the  county  for  all 
fees,  commissions,  and  compensations  of  every  sort  received  by  him  by 
virtue  of  his  office. 


36  County  Government 


CHAPTER  IV 
Forms  of  County  Government 

H.  S.  GiusERTSON,  Secretary,  National  Short-Ballot  Organization 

Fundamentally,  the  great  war  in  which  we  are  now  engaged  is  a 
contest  for  human  rights;  to  determine  whether  the  free  peoples  shall 
work  out  their  own  destinies  or  have  the  ideals  of  a  different  civiliza- 
tion forced  upon  them.  This  nation  is  called  upon  at  this  hour  to 
justify  the  ideals  for  which  it  stands,  and  it  will  do  this  by  the  superior 
service  which  it  renders  to  the  people.  With  us,  the  people  are  superior 
to  the  government;  we  do  not  exist  for  the  sake  of  the  government,  as 
the  German  people  apparently  do.  What  we  shall  have  to  do,  more 
and  more,  will  be  to  make  the  government  the  servant  of  the  people, 
and  on  this  ideal  we  shall  have  to  work  out  in  the  years  which  are 
immediately  ahead  of  us  a  more  solid  and  satisfying  program  of  public 
service  and  citizenship  than  we  have  ever  known  before. 

This  is  particularly  true  because  the  people  are  turning  more  and 
more  to  the  government  to  do  things  for  them  which  they  have  here- 
tofore done  for  themselves  through  private  agencies.  We  are  discovering 
very  rapidly  that  the  people,  by  working  together,  bound  together  by 
political  ties,  can  do  vastly  more  than  a  great  many  individuals  work- 
ing independently.  In  a  national  sense,  we  see  this  thought  exemplified 
in  the  control  which  the  government  is  assuming  over  the  railroads 
and  its  extension  of  control  over  the  banking  business,  the  control  of 
the  food  supply,  and  in  a  score  of  other  ways. 

Just  at  present,  the  nation  and  the  National  Government  seem  to  be 
getting  the  lion's  share  of  attention  of  the  people,  but,  after  all,  the 
States  and  cities  and  the  other  divisions  of  government  have  an  ex- 
tremely important  part  in  working  out  the  destinies  of  the  nation. 

Not  the  least  of  the  agencies  for  human  betterment  is  that  division 
of  government  which  up  to  the  present  time  has  been  set  in  the  back- 
ground, neglected  and  abused — the  division  of  government  whose  work 
up  until  now  has  been  very  prosy  and  of  an  almost  wholly  routine 
nature.  I  refer  to  the  counties.  It  is  only  within  the  past  two  or  three 
years  that  civic  attention  has  been  turning  to  this  branch  of  govern- 
ment. 

In  one  sense,  the  county  is  much  nearer  to  all  of  us,  particularly  in 
the  South  and  in  those  parts  of  the  country  where  large  cities  are  fewer, 
than  the  government  at  a  State  capital,  or  even  the  government  at 
Washington.  It  is  the  county  to  which  we  turn  in  North  Carolina  and 
in  other  States,  for  instance,  to  take  care  of  public  health,  which  of 


In  North  CABOLUfA  37 

course  is  one  of  the  most  vital  and  important  of  human  interests.  It 
is  to  the  county  to  which  we  look  in  most  States  for  the  roads,  which 
in  our  time  have  come  to  be  such  an  indispensable  factor  in  bringing 
people  together  and  enlarging  and  enriching  their  lives.  The  county 
concerns  itself  also  with  education. 

These  are  some  of  the  things  which  have  been  turned  over  to  the 
county  organization  for  the  simple  reason  that  the  county  was  already 
on  the  ground  doing  business,  and  there  was  no  other  convenient  agency 
to  which  these  functions  could  be  assigned.  But  now  that  we  are  look- 
ing to  government  for  greater  and  better  service,  we  shall  have  to  think 
of  the  county  in  an  entirely  new  light;  not  as  something  which  happens 
to  lie  around  loose  and  which  will  automatically  take  up  responsibili- 
ties which  fall  to  the  government,  but  as  a  great  humanizing  agency 
which  we  shall  have  to  turn  to  more  and  more  as  governmental  demands 
increase.  And  in  the  measure  that  county  government  shows  itself  fit 
to  carry  new  responsibilities,  in  that  measure  we  shall  be  inclined  to 
confer  upon  it  new  responsibilities.  Unless  the  county  does  measure 
up  in  this  way,  the  powers  of  government  and  the  services  which  it 
renders  will  have  to  drift  away  from  our  local  control  and  be  placed  in 
the  hands  of  some  government  more  fit  and  which  will  probably  be 
further  away  from  home.  In  other  words,  if,  with  the  increasing  pres- 
sure upon  government  to  perform  new  services,  county  government  does 
not  meet  the  test,  some  of  our  ideals  of  local  self-government  of  long 
standing  will  undergo  a  change  which  a  great  many  of  us  will  regret. 
There  are  some  parts  of  the  country  where  I  can  see  that  the  county 
will  pass  out  of  existence  entirely  in  a  very  short  time,  unless  it  does 
adjust  itself  to  the  new  conditions. 

What  is  it,  then,  that  we  seek  in  county  government? 

It  seems  to  me  that,  first  of  all,  what  is  needed  in  North  Carolina 
and  every  other  State  in  the  Union,  without  exception,  is  a  government 
whose  allegiance  to  the  whole  people  is  absolutely  unmistakable.  That 
may  seem  a  very  simple  proposition,  which  is  hardly  worth  discussing, 
and  yet  every  county  that  I  know  anything  about,  through  close  observa- 
tion, is  most  distinctly  a  government  of  divided  allegiance.  Its  officers 
are  working,  not  altogether  for  the  whole  people,  but  sometimes,  first 
and  foremost,  for  a  section  of  the  people  who  look  upon  the  county 
government  as  a  legitimate  hunting  ground  for  the  spoils  of  office.  In 
such  counties  office-seeking  has  become  not  the  means  to  the  end  of 
performing  service,  but  exists  for  the  immediate  reward,  and  whatever 
service  is  rendered  to  the  people  is  incidental  to  that  other  object. 

I  leave  it  entirely  with  you  to  determine  whether  or  not  county  gov- 
ernment in  North  Carolina  exists  for  the  sake  of  the  people,  or  for  the 
sake  of  providing  a  small  portion  of  the  people  with  opportunities  to 
make  a  living  at  the  public  expense.  I  have  seen  evidences  that  in 
one  field  at  least — that  of  public  health — the  county  government  in  this 


38  County  Government 

State  is  unusually  well  organized  and  conceived  to  serve  the  people.  I 
hope  that  there  are  other  fields  in  which  this  is  true. 

But  I  can  conceive  of  a  government  in  which  the  officeholders  are 
wholly  alive  to  the  interests  of  the  county,  absolutely  honest  and  sin- 
cere, and  yet  lacking  in  another  essential,  that  of  having  a  policy  and 
plan  of  public  service.  This  is  one  of  the  most  common  faults  of  Ameri- 
can government,  in  all  its  branches,  everywhere:  it  seems  to  lack  the 
power  to  look  into  the  future  and  provide  for  the  future  needs.  Never 
before  in  our  history  was  this  so  strikingly  brought  out  as  during  the 
present  war,  when  we  went  up  against  a  nation  whose  most  conspicuous 
trait  is  having  a  definite  plan  for  the  future,  and  the  power  to  make 
proper  preparations  for  carrying  out  that  plan  when  the  appropriate 
time  should  come.  Our  Government  went  up  against  that  nation  with 
a  political  organization  that  looks  scarcely  more  than  two  or  three 
years  ahead  into  the  immediate  future.  We  went  into  the  war  without 
policy  or  plan.  It  was  not  the  fault  of  the  particular  men  who  hap- 
pened to  be  in  control  of  the  Government;  it  would  have  been  very 
much  the  same  under  any  other  administration.  The  fault  lay  in  us, 
as  American  citizens,  who  have  the  bad  habit  of  living  from  hand  to 
mouth  so  far  as  any  public  policy  is  concerned. 

For  the  lack  of  these  two  characteristics,  that  is,  of  the  complete 
whole-hearted  allegiance  to  the  people  as  a  whole,  and  for  the  lack  of  a 
policy  and  a  plan,  counties  in  the  United  States  have  failed  more  de- 
cidedly than  any  other  branch  of  government  in  performing  public 
service.  It  seems  to  me,  therefore,  that  to  meet  these  deficiencies  in 
the  county,  particularly  at  this  time,  when  demands  upon  government 
are  so  heavy  and  when  citizenship  is  coming  to  mean  so  much  more 
than  it  did,  we  shall  have  to  get  down  to  bed-rock  and  see  what  is  the 
matter  with  the  county,  and  how  its  faults  can  be  remedied.  It  is,  of 
course,  particularly  a  matter  of  organization,  but  back  of  that  is  our 
own  attitude  toward  the  government  itself. 

The  first  thing  to  be  reformed  in  county  government  is  not  the 
officers  down  at  the  courthouse,  but  our  own  attitude  toward  the  county, 
and  particularly  toward  public  ofiice.  For,  after  all,  public  officers  in 
this  country  are  just  what  the  people  make  them.  We  have  thought  of 
a  county  office  as  something  carrying  a  pretty  good  salary  which  every 
man  ought  to  have  a  chance  to  fill  once  in  a  lifetime  at  least,  and  there 
are  some  of  us  who  would  feel  very  badly,  and  as  if  a  revolution  had 
taken  place,  if  we  were  deprived  of  the  opportunity  of  going  to  the 
polls  every  once  in  so  often  and  expressing  our  opinion  as  to  who  should 
be  the  sheriff  and  who  should  be  the  county  clerk.  We  have  put  too 
much  emphasis  on  the  job  and  too  little  on  the  service  to  be  rendered. 
For  instance,  what  difference  does  it  make  whether  John  Jones  or 
Harvey  Smith  is  county  clerk?  The  main  thing  to  consider  is  whether 
or  not  the  duties  which  the  law  imposes  upon  the  county  clerk's  office 


In  Noeth  Cakolina  39 

are  being  done  properly,  and  so  long  as  that  is  the  case  it  really  does 
not  matter  whether  the  county  clerk  is  a  Democrat  or  a  Republican. 
There  is  not  a  republican  or  a  democratic  way  of  filing  papers,  so  why 
worry  about  it  in  an  election.  What  is  the  use  in  getting  everybody 
excited  over  a  small  matter  like  that,  when  there  are  big  issues  to  be 
decided,  if  there  were  only  some  one  in  the  county  government  big 
enough,  far-sighted  enough,  to  tell  us  what  those  issues  are  and  where 
they  could  be  met. 

I  know  you  feel  that  people  have  always  had  the  right  to  select  these 
officers;  and  you  feel  that  the  people  can  do  it  better  than  anybody  else. 
I  am  not  denying  that  fact,  but  that  is  not  the  idea.  The  thing  simply 
is,  that  the  people,  if  they  only  knew  it,  have  very  much  larger  interests 
to  take  care  of,  and  they  ought  as  soon  as  possible  to  get  their  minds 
on  those  interests,  rather  than  the  small  matter  of  filling  offices.  But 
even  that  is  not  the  worst  of  it.  The  really  serious  thing  about  filling 
a  great  many  offices  by  popular  election  is  that  each  officer  chosen  in 
this  way  is  independent  of  every  other,  with  the  result  that  you  have 
perhaps  a  dozen  different  officers,  all  working  in  their  own  way,  without 
any  head  to  direct  them,  and  consequently  heading  for  nowhere  in  par- 
ticular. Under  these  circumstances,  you  cannot  get  a  government  which 
has  a  policy  and  a  plan  for  public  service.  You  put  your  officers  in  a 
state  of  mind  where  their  principal  concern  is  how  they  are  to  keep  in 
office  and  continue  to  collect  their  salaries. 

It  is  really  a  very  simple  proposition — this  right  sort  of  organization 
in  the  county.  A  few  years  ago  the  cities  all  over  the  country  were 
organized  very  much  as  your  counties  are,  that  is,  on  the  idea  that  if 
a  lot  of  independent  officers  were  chosen  directly  by  the  people  they 
would  be  responsible.  After  working  on  this  idea  for  several  genera- 
tions, a  city  down  in  Texas  (Galveston)  discovered,  by  merest  acci- 
dent, that  when  you  want  to  get  things  done  and  service  rendered  to 
the  people,  you  have  got  to  put  the  power  to  do  things  in  the  hands  of 
men  whom  you  can  watch  and  who  have  power  to  carry  out  your  wishes. 
Galveston  had  one  of  these  many-headed  governments,  like  the  counties 
in  North  Carolina,  when  the  flood  came  and  destroyed  the  city,  and 
in  that  catastrophe  they  got  rid  of  that  style  of  government  in  a  few 
days,  and  they  have  never  gotten  back  to  it.  They  elect  five  men  who 
constitute  a  board,  and  upon  that  board  they  confer  all  the  power  of 
the  city,  including  spending  money  and  appointing  all  the  necessary 
officers  to  carry  out  the  policies  of  the  city.  Instead  of  having  a  dozen 
governments  they  have  but  one,  and  that  one  they  tcatch.  And  because 
it  has  power  to  do  things,  it  is  worth  watching,  and  the  fact  that  the 
people  are  looking  on  all  the  time  keeps  it  from  going  very  far  wrong. 
It  is  a  very  much  safer  government  than  the  old  style  one,  which  per- 
mitted men  to  push  off  responsibility  from  one  man  to  another,  with 
the  result  that  nothing  was  done  or  else  badly  and  corruptly  done. 


40  County  Government 

Galveston's  kind  of  government  got  hold  of  a  very  important  idea  and 
carried  it  out  in  a  very  crude  way,  although  it  was  better  than  anything 
the  city  had  known  before.  In  the  course  of  a  few  years  the  Galveston 
plan  spread  all  over  the  State  of  Texas,  up  into  the  Middle  West,  clear 
out  to  the  Pacific  coast,  up  into  New  England,  and  through  the  Southern 
States  to  a  very  large  degree,  so  that  right  here  in  North  Carolina  you 
have  these  cities  organized  on  the  Commission  Plan.  There  are  four 
hundred  of  them,  and  not  more  than  three  or  four  that  have  adopted 
the  plan  have  seen  fit  to  go  back  to  the  old  system  or  anything  like  it. 

But,  in  the  course  of  time,  a  certain  city  not  very  far  away  from  here 
discovered  a  way  to  improve  on  the  Commission  Plan,  and  that  plan, 
too,  for  the  last  three  or  four  years  has  been  spreading  very  rapidly 
over  the  country.  It  was  the  little  city  of  Sumter,  S.  C,  which  in  1912 
decided  to  take  the  general  idea  of  the  commission  government,  that 
is,  putting  the  powers  of  the  city  in  one  board  and  then,  instead  of 
giving  those  three  men- — as  it  happened  to  be  in  their  case — the  re- 
sponsibility for  taking  care  of  the  details  of  the  city,  they  made  the 
commissioners  simply  a  board  of  directors,  and  then  did  what  every 
other  board  of  directors  in  private  business  always  does — they  ap- 
pointed a  manager  who  would  execute  the  orders  of  the  commission  in 
detail.  That  plan,  too,  is  very  simple.  We  have  at  last  come  around, 
in  American  local  government,  to  the  idea  that  safety  and  accomplish- 
ment lies  not  in  making  the  government  complex  and  hard  to  under- 
stand, but  extremely  simple. 

From  the  cities  the  idea  of  the  manager  and  the  small  commission 
will  very  shortly  be  applied  to  counties.  There  is  not  at  the  present 
moment  a  single  county  in  the  United  States  which  has  anything  ap- 
proaching a  really  good  organization.  There  is  certainly  no  county 
at  the  present  time  which  has  this  simple  type  of  government,  such  as 
Sumter  and  nearly  one  hundred  other  cities  in  the  United  States  have 
adopted.  Nevertheless,  it  will  have  to  come,  and  it  will  come  through 
such  movements  as  this  in  North  Carolina — one  of  very  few  such  move- 
ments in  the  country — which  recognizes  that  the  county  has  a  great 
mission  to  perform  and  that  it  will  have  to  set  its  house  in  order.  I 
am  speaking  to  you  now  as  to  pioneers  in  this  movement.  North  Caro- 
lina leads  the  country  in  its  organization  for  public  health  service. 
Now  that  you  have  already  recognized  the  importance  of  the  county, 
have  an  organization  for  studying  it  whose  influence  spreads  through- 
out the  State,  and  studying  the  services  which  it  can  render,  I  hope 
you  will  get  down  to  fundamentals  and  give  us  something  which  we 
can  point  to  for  other  States  in  the  Union  as  a  model  to  be  followed. 


In  North  Carolina  41 


CHAPTER  V 

Why  Not  Local  Self- Government  for  Rural 
Communities? 

Claeence  Poe,  Editor,  the  Progressive  Farmer,  Raleigh,  N.  C. 

The  chief  task  of  the  man  who  would  help  develop  a  rich  and  puis- 
sant rural  civilization  here  in  the  South — ^the  chief  task  perhaps  of  the 
man  who  would  make  of  an  agricultural  State  like  North  Carolina  the 
great  commonwealth  it  ought  to  be — is  to  develop  the  rural  community. 

Mr.  George  W.  Russell,  editor  of  the  Irish  Homestead  (whom  I  am 
tempted  to  call  the  greatest  of  rural  sociologists),  reminds  us  of  our 
elemental  weakness  when  he  says  that  while  we  have  had  people  living 
here  and  there  in  rural  sections  heretofore  we  have  not  had  rural  "com- 
munities," the  word  "community"  signifying  a  group  of  people  with 
common  interests  organized  to  work  together  as  one  body  in  their 
aspirations,  hopes,  ideals,  ambitions. 

No  Rural  Commniiities 

A  mere  collection  of  dwelling-houses  does  not  make  a  community. 
It  becomes  a  real  community  only  when  it  passes  through  the  experi- 
ence of  Kipling's  "Ship  That  Found  Itself,"  and  a  common  feeling  of 
loyalty,  pride,  and  identity  of  interest  reveals  itself.  This  is  what  the 
organization  of  the  town  quickly  develops,  and  what  the  lack  of  organi- 
zation of  the  country  has  prevented  from  developing  there.  In  the 
town  there  are  ample  agencies  and  organizations  through  which  the 
townsman  may  work  for  better  streets,  better  lights,  better  schools,  for 
parks  and  playgrounds,  public  buildings,  country  clubs,  pretty  suburbs, 
music,  art,  libraries,  etc.,  and  to  get  more  progressive  people  to  come 
to  be  neighbors  with  him,  and  so  on  and  on.  But  it  is  a  sad  fact  that 
while  we  have  had  people  living  here  and  there  in  the  country  sections 
we  have  not  had  country  "communities."  We  have  not  had  this  unity 
of  interest,  this  community  consciousness. 

And  why  have  we  not  had  them?  Partly,  of  course,  because  of  the 
individualistic  character  of  farm  life — a  characteristic  which  coopera- 
tion in  buying  and  selling  and  in  farm  work  will  steadily  overcome. 
But  in  an  even  larger  measure,  I  believe  the  failure  to  develop  the  rural 
community  has  been  due  to  a  failure  to  provide  the  machinery  for  its 
development  and  expression. 


42  County  Government 

"Why  the  Country  is  More  Backward  Than  the  City 

It  is  an  indictment,  and  a  true  indictment,  of  the  leaders  of  our  race 
which  Mr.  George  W.  Russell  draws  when  he  says  that  great  minds 
from  Solon  and  Aristotle  in  ancient  Greece  to  Alexander  Hamilton  in 
our  own  country  have  given  much  thought  to  the  organization  of  cities 
and  States,  to  the  problems  of  municipalities  and  commonwealths,  but 
have  treated  "the  rural  problem  as  purely  economic  as  if  agriculture 
were  a  business  only  and  not  a  life."  The  result  he  finds  exemplified 
in  the  contrast  between  the  facilities  for  progress  in  his  own  city  of 
Dublin  and  the  absence  of  such  facilities  in  the  surrounding  rural 
sections : 

"If  Dublin  or  any  other  city  wants  an  art  gallery  or  public  baths,  or 
recreation  grounds,  there  is  a  machinery  which  can  be  set  in  motion, 
there  are  corporations  and  urban  councils  which  can  be  approached. 
If  public  opinion  is  evident — and  it  is  easy  to  organize  public  opinion 
in  a  town — the  city  representatives  will  consider  the  scheme,  and  if 
they  approve  and  it  is  within  their  power  as  a  corporation  or  council, 
they  are  able  to  levy  taxes  to  finance  the  art  gallery,  public  bath-houses, 
recreation  grounds,  public  gardens,  or  whatever  else.  Now  let  us  go 
to  a  country  district  where  there  is  no  organization.  It  may  be  obvious 
to  one  or  two  people  that  the  place  is  perishing  and  that,  lacking  some 
center  of  life,  humanity  is  decaying.  They  want  a  village  hall  (a  com- 
munity meeting-place),  but  how  is  it  to  be  obtained?  They  begin  talking 
about  it  to  this  person  and  that.  They  ask  these  people  to  talk  to  their 
friends,  and  the  ripples  go  out,  weakening  and  widening  for  months, 
perhaps  years." 

And  so  nothing  is  done.  In  other  words,  the  civic  impulse,  the  social 
instinct,  can  find  machinery  for  expression  in  the  city  but  cannot  in 
the  country;  and  so,  as  Mr.  Russell  says,  "The  difficulty  of  moving  the 
countryman,  which  has  become  traditional,  is  not  due  to  the  fact  that 
he  lives  in  the  country,  but  to  the  fact  that  he  lives  in  an  unorganized 
society." 

There,  as  I  see  it,  is  the  whole  situation  in  a  nutshell.  Country 
people  are  in  heart  and  mind  just  as  progressive  as  city  people,  but 
they  haven't  the  facilities  for  expressing  the  spirit  of  progress.  The 
power-belt  of  organization  has  not  been  attached  to  the  throbbing 
dynamo  of  rural  aspiration. 

The  Country  Community  Alone  is  Without  Form  and  Void 

Consider  the  fact  that  the  country  community  is  the  only  social  unit 
known  to  our  civilization  that  is  without  definite  boundaries  and  with- 
out machinery  for  self-expression  and  development — without  form,  and 
void,  as  was  chaos  before  creation. 


In  North  Carolina  43 

There  is  the  Nation,  with  its  government  and  its  flag  and  its  definite  , 
boundaries— and  we  are  all  ready  to  fight  for  it,  sing  of  it,  die  for  it! 

There  is  the  State,  too,  with  its  government,  its  history,  its  flag — 
and  each  of  us  is  passionately  devoted  to  his  State. 

There  likewise  is  the  County,  with  its  definite  boundaries,  its  history, 
its  government,  by  means  of  which  its  people  can  express  themselves — 
and  there  is  all  over  the  country  a  more  or  less  definite  feeling  of  county 
pride  among  all  classes. 

And  then,  for  the  townsmen,  there  is  the  town  or  city  with  its  definite 
boundaries,  its  local  government,  its  commissioners  or  aldermen,  its 
ample  machinery  for  proper  self-expression. 

But  for  the  country  community  there  is  no  organic  means  of  expres- 
sion whatever.  There  is,  of  course,  that  shadowy  and  futile  geographi- 
cal division  known  as  the  Township — but  it  is  laid  off  utterly  without 
regard  to  human  consideration,  and  serves  no  purpose  save  as  a  means 
of  defining  voting  boundaries  and  limiting  the  spheres  of  constables  and 
sheriff's  deputies— a  mere  ghostly  phantom  of  a  social  entity  that  we 
need  not  consider  at  all. 

So  it  is  true  we  have  Nation,  State,  County,  and  Town,  each  with 
machinery  for  self-expression  and  development,  and  only  the  country 
community  is  voiceless — formless  indeed,  "powerless  to  be  bom." 

Jefferson's  Appeal  for  Township  Government 

Thomas  Jefferson  a  hundred  years  ago  saw  just  the  situation  thus 
described — saw  that  county,  State,  and  Nation  were  organized  and  that 
the  town  was  organized,  but  that  there  was  no  organization  in  rural 
communities. 

So  he  declared  that  the  New  England  township  system  of  government, 
"the  subdivision  of  the  counties  into  wards"  for  self-government,  was 
the  very  foundation-stone  of  democracy. 

As  soon  as  the  Revolution  was  over,  he  tells  us,  he  drew  a  bill  for  the 
Virginia  Legislature  which  proposed  to  lay  off  every  county  into  self- 
governing  wards  or  townships  five  or  six  miles  square  with  a  public 
school  in  the  center;  and  as  long  as  he  lived  he  never  ceased  to  urge 
the  importance  of  this  action.  As  long  as  he  had  breath,  he  declared 
when  an  old  man,  he  was  going  to  fight  for  just  two  things:  "public 
education  and  the  subdivision  of  the  counties  into  wards  (townships) : 
I  consider  the  continuance  of  the  republican  government  as  absolutely 
hanging  on  these  two  hooks."  And  in  1816  he  wrote:  "The  article 
nearest  my  heart  is  the  subdivision  of  the  counties  into  wards  (or 
townships)." 

On  a  recent  visit  to  New  England  I  made  some  investigations  which 
convinced  me  anew  of  the  wisdom  and  foresight  of  Jefferson's  view. 


44  County  Government 

(Perhaps  I  ought  to  say  here  that  New  Englanders  call  a  township  a 
"town"  though  everybody  in  It  may  be  a  farmer  with  no  sign  of  a  vil- 
lage; but  to  avoid  confusion  I  shall  substitute  the  word  "township" 
throughout  this  article). 

Now  why  was  Jefferson  so  supremely  interested  in  establishing  the 
township  system  of  government  in  the  South?  It  wasn't  because  he 
simply  had  a  theory  that  it  was  "the  wisest  invention  ever  devised  for 
the  perfect  exercise  of  self-government,"  but  because  the  experience  of 
New  England  had  proved  it  so.  Jefferson  saw  that  with  the  county  as 
the  smallest  unit  of  government  in  the  South,  the  people  as  a  whole 
would  not  control.  There  was  no  provision  for  general  mass-meetings 
of  all  the  voters  of  the  county  to  control  their  affairs,  and  if  there  had 
been,  distances  in  a  county  were  too  great  for  all  the  people  to  come 
together.  Consequently  Jefferson  realized  that  if  the  county  was  to  be 
the  smallest  unit  of  government,  a  few  aristocrats  or  a  few  bosses 
would  control;  and  it  is  undoubtedly  true  that  the  aristocratic  classes 
in  Virginia  realized  the  same  thing  and  consequently  prevented  the 
establishment  of  the  township  system  he  advocated. 

Each  county  in  New  England  is  subdivided  into  just  such  townships 
as  Jefferson  proposed  in  Virginia — communities  about  five  miles  square, 
so  that  the  farthest  citizen  is  two  and  one-half  miles  from  the  center — 
and  each  township  is  "a  small  republic  in  itself,"  as  he  declared.  Once 
every  year  all  the  voters  of  the  township  come  together  in  mass-meeting 
to  elect  their  officers,  to  vote  upon  all  questions  affecting  the  com- 
munity's welfare,  and  to  decide  upon  taxes  for  schools,  roads,  and 
other  purposes;  and  similar  mass-meetings  may  be  called  at  any  time 
(upon  petition  of  a  proper  proportion  of  voters)  to  pass  upon  any  other 
public  question  that  may  come  up. 

Gordon,  in  his  "History  of  Independence  In  the  United  States,"  de- 
scribes a  New  England  township  meeting  in  Revolutionary  times  in 
words  just  as  applicable  today: 

"Every  township  is  an  incorporated  republic.  The  selectmen  (town- 
ship commissioners)  upon  their  own  authority,  or  upon  the  application 
of  a  certain  number  of  citizens,  issue  a  warrant  for  the  calling  of  a 
township  meeting.  The  warrant  mentions  the  business  to  be  engaged 
in,  and  no  other  can  be  legally  executed.  The  inhabitants  are  warned 
to  attend;  and  they  that  are  present,  though  not  a  quarter  or  a  tenth 
of  the  whole,  have  a  right  to  proceed.  .  .  .  Each  individual  has  an 
equal  liberty  of  delivering  his  opinion,  and  is  not  liable  to  be  silenced 
or  brow-beaten  by  a  richer  or  greater  citizen  than  himself.  Every  free- 
man or  freeholder  gives  his  vote  or  not,  and  for  or  against,  as  he 
pleases,  and  each  vote  weighs  equally  whether  that  of  the  highest  or 
lowest  inhabitant." 


In  North  Cabolina  45 

How  Each  New  England  Community  Rules  Itself 

At  these  annual  township  meetings  the  people  elect  a  board  of  three, 
five,  or  seven  selectmen  or  township  commissioners  who  see  that  the 
laws  aro  enforced  and  have  authority  to  look  after  the  welfare  of  the 
township  about  as  our  county  commissioners  look  after  the  welfare  of 
a  county  or  a  board  of  aldermen  a  town.    Other  officers  chosen  are: 

1.  A  township  clerk; 

2.  Township  tax  assessors; 

3.  A  tax  collector; 

4.  A  township  treasurer; 

5.  Road  supervisors; 

6.  Constable; 

7.  School  committeemen; 

8.  Fence  viewers   (to  settle  disputes  about  fences) ; 

9.  Overseers  of  the  poor  (to  look  after  paupers) ; 

10.  Field  drivers  (to  look  after  stray  cattle,  hogs,  sheep) ; 

11.  A  local  board  of  health  (to  cooperate  with  county  and  state  boards 
in  improving  health  conditions) ; 

12.  Library  trustees. 

Most  of  these  officers  (except  tax  collectors,  constables,  etc.,  paid  by 
fees)  serve  without  pay,  just  as  school  committeemen  do  in  the  South, 
simply  because  they  feel  a  pride  in  doing  a  citizen's  duty.  Thus  the 
great  author  and  philosopher  Emerson  served  a  term  as  field  driver  in 
his  township! 

And  everything  that  deserves  the  attention  of  the  voters  gets  it  at 
the  annual  township  meeting.  "If  there  is  any  new  plan  or  any  change 
in  old  plans  that  we  believe  would  help  the  community,"  as  one  Mas- 
sachusetts man  said  to  me,  "we  begin  talking  about  it  and  agitating  it 
before  the  annual  township  meeting.  Ten  voters  can  get  any  pertinent 
subject  listed  for  discussion  and  action  by  their  fellow  citizens,  and  this 
means  that  everything  worth  while  gets  a  hearing.  Even  a  crank  can 
likely  get  nine  men  to  sig^Q  with  him  and  have  his  idea  brought  for- 
ward!" 

Just  to  give  an  idea  of  how  completely  the  people  rule  themselves 
in  these  New  England  communities  or  townships,  I  may  mention  a 
warrant  I  saw  for  the  annual  mass-meeting  of  the  voters  of  Hadley 
Township,  in  Hampshire  County,  which  I  visited.  It  provided  for  dis- 
cussion and  action  upon  the  following  subjects: 

1.  To  select  a  moderator. 

2.  To  hear  reports  of  township  officers. 

3.  To  elect  township  officers  for  the  ensuing  year. 

4.  Road  and  bridge  improvement. 

5.  License  or  no  license. 


46  County  Government 

6.  To  confirm  or  reject  the  men  proposed  by  the  selectmen  for  jurors 
in  the  county  court. 

7.  To  consider  appropriations  for  the  ensuing  year. 

8.  To  consider  plans  for  having  the  state  highway  come  through 
Hadley  Township. 

9.  Should  we  close  Hockanum  School  and  transport  pupils  there  to 
the  central  school? 

10.  To  consider  lighting  the  township  hall  (or  community  center) 
with  gas. 

11.  To  consider  plans  for  improving  the  fire-fighting  equipment. 

12.  Should  the  township  spend  $300  to  improve  the  road  from  Thomas 
Flaherty's  to  the  four  corners  at  East  Hadley? 

13.  Better  drainage  of  Shipman's  Swamp. 

14.  Appropriations  for  the  High  School. 

15.  Should  the  charge  for  renting  the  township  hall  for  dances  and 
entertainments  be  reduced? 

16.  Should  the  township  spend  $100  to  harden  the  road  from  P. 
Ryan's  to  the  North  Amherst  line? 

Time  for  the  South  to  Follow  Jefferson 

And  even  this  list  of  sixteen  subjects  does  not  exhaust  the  topics 
listed  for  action  by  the  freemen  of  Hadley  Township.  But  this  simple 
recital  of  some  of  the  things  discussed  and  settled  by  the  people  them- 
selves once  a  year  at  least,  in  each  New  England  neighborhood,  ought 
to  make  it  clear  how  free  and  unhampered  is  the  stream  of  progress 
under  the  township  system  of  government,  and  how  dammed  and 
clogged  is  the  stream  here  in  the  South  where  we  have  nothing  but  the 
county  to  act  for  us,  and  the  small  communities  have  no  power  what- 
ever except  to  elect  their  constables.  Or  rather,  we  should  say  that  the 
small  rural  communities,  the  communities  of  farmers,  have  no  power 
whatever  except  this,  for  just  as  soon  as  a  community  of  villagers  is 
formed,  it  is  incorporated  and  given  all  these  powers.  In  other  words, 
the  townspeople  everywhere  have  local  self-government,  while  com- 
munities of  farmers  have  no  such  power. 

Consider  conditions  in  your  own  county,  kind  reader.  The  people 
never  have  any  stated  time  for  getting  together  in  mass-meeting  unless 
it  is  in  county  conventions  of  their  respective  political  parties  once 
every  two  years,  and  this  plan  does  practically  nothing  toward  helping 
community  progress.  In  the  first  place,  distances  are  so  great  that  only 
a  small  part  of  the  voters  attend.  In  the  second  place,  the  convention 
is  so  intent  upon  the  distribution  of  offices  and  upon  state  and  national 
politics,  that  county  affairs  of  real  importance  get  scant  attention. 
And  in  the  third  place,  it's  a  meeting  for  the  whole  county,  and  the 
members  have  no  time  to  listen  to  any  plan  you  have  for  the  improve- 
ment of  your  own  particular  neighborhood  or  township. 


In  North  Carolina  47 

Moreover,  the  county  commissioners  or  other  governing  body  of  the 
county  are  elected  to  look  at  everything  from  the  standpoint  of  the 
county,  and  cannot,  if  they  would,  work  out  plans  for  local  betterment 
as  well  as  the  people  would  do  for  themselves — to  say  nothing  of  the 
humiliation  the  freemen  of  any  township  must  feel  in  having  to  entreat 
a  lot  of  officials  higher  up  about  the  management  of  every  item  of  their 
own  affairs.  And  yet  not  only  are  people  in  rural  communities  or  town- 
ships without  power  to  act  for  themselves,  but  until  recently  they  had 
even  to  go  up  to  the  state  capital,  hat  in  hand,  and  beg  a  state  legisla- 
ture for  the  power  to  regulate  such  purely  local  matters  as  chickens 
running  at  large  or  the  drainage  of  a  stagnant  stream! 

Keep  the  Counties  Big  and  Give  Local  Communities  Self-government 

Of  course  our  people  have  felt  the  burden  of  this  shameful  system 
or  lack  of  system,  and  in  a  blundering  way  we  have  been  feeling  about 
for  a  remedy.  But  the  trouble  is  that  in  trying  to  improve  matters  we 
have  jumped  from  the  frying  pan  into  the  fire  by  splitting  up  counties 
and  making  more  counties — each  new  county  meaning  a  new  sheriff,  a 
new  register,  a  new  clerk,  a  new  treasurer,  a  new  jail,  a  new  poorhouse, 
and  heaven  only  knows  how  many  other  things  and  persons,  all  to  be 
supported  from  the  people's  taxes.  Or,  frequently,  one  section  of  a 
farming  county  in  which  a  rich  city  is  located  has  had  itself  set  apart 
into  a  new  county,  leaving  the  old  rural  county  without  any  revenues 
from  the  city  its  farmers  have  helped  to  make  rich. 

The  thing  to  do  instead  of  all  this  is  to  keep  the  counties  big  so  that 
the  burden  of  supporting  county  officers  will  be  light  and  so  that  really 
useful  county  officers  may  be  provided — a  county  superintendent  of 
schools,  a  county  health  officer,  a  demonstration  agent,  and  a  woman's 
work  agent  (for  canning,  poultry,  and  house-work),  each  employed 
for  his  or  her  whole  time— and  at  the  same  time  give  the  people  of  each 
locality  power  to  manage  their  own  affairs  through  the  township  system. 

In  other  words,  we  need  local  self-govei-nment  for  rural  districts  just 
as  we  already  have  for  town  districts — only  local  self-government 
doesn't  mean  at  all  that  the  State  should  not  set  a  minimum  standard 
in  education  and  morals  and  public  progress  below  which  no  community 
should  be  allowed  to  fall  (while  leaving  the  community  free  to  go  as 
much  further  as  it  wished),  just  as  the  law  sets  certain  moral  or  legal 
standards  below  which  a  citizen  cannot  fall  and  stay  out  of  jail,  though 
he  may  be  as  much  better  a  man  as  he  pleases.  The  whole  State  is 
injured,  for  example,  if  one  township  lets  its  citizenship  deteriorate 
through  ignorance  or  drunkenness,  and  so  the  State  has  a  right  to  say 
that  at  least  a  six  months  school  term  must  be  given  in  every  township 
and  that  no  whiskey-selling  must  be  permitted.  Or  if  one  township  is 
Infested  with  cattle  ticks,  other  townships  are  injured,  and  so  the  State 


48  County  Government 

may  set  a  minimum  standard  here.  But  apart  from  these  minimum 
standards  for  the  whole  State  set  by  the  public  opinion  of  the  whole 
State,  each  locality  should  rule  itself. 

Here  in  the  South  we  shall  never  make  the  progress  we  ought  to 
make  until  some  provision  is  made  for  giving  rural  communities  local 
self-government. 

Why  not  follow  Jefferson  and  try  Township  Government? 


In  North  Carolina  49 


.       CHAPTER  VI 
The  County  Tax  List  and  its  Equalization 

Chables  Lee  Rapeb,  Processor  of  Economics,  University  of 
North  Carolina 

In  practically  all  of  our  states  the  assessment  of  property  for  taxa- 
tion purposes  is  under  the  control  of  the  Legislature.  The  local  units 
of  government  can  do  only  that  which  the  Legislature  allows  them  to 
do  or  that  which  the  Legislature  prescribes  that  they  should  do.  This 
is  the  situation  in  North  Carolina.  The  county  is  the  administrative 
unit  of  the  assessment  of  taxable  values  and  the  township  is  the  unit 
for  the  placing  of  these  values  upon  the  assessment  books.  Neither 
the  county  nor  the  township  has  any  discretion  a,s  to  the  machinery 
that  it  must  use  in  the  assessment  of  taxables.  The  local  assessment 
officers  may  use  their  discretion  to  a  very  large  degree  when  it  comes 
to  the  fixing  of  the  valuation  of  taxable  properties.  In  theory  they 
must  put  all  properties  on  the  assessment  books  at  their  cash  values; 
in  practice  they  place  most  of  the  taxables  on  the  books  at  the  values 
which  the  owner  suggests. 

Before  any  significant  reform  can  be  made  in  the  assessment  of 
taxables,  the  Legislature  must  take  important  action  as  to  the  method 
and  machinery  of  assessment  and  as  to  the  salary  and  capacity  of 
the  local  assessment  official.  There  are  two  ways  for  North  Carolina 
to  travel  in  order  to  secure  significant  reform  in  her  system  of  assess- 
ment and  taxation:  (1)  New  machinery  of  assessment  operating  under 
a  new  constitutional  provision,  which  allows  the  Legislature  the  power 
to  make  classification  of  taxables  and  rates  and  to  separate  the  sources 
of  state  and  local  revenues;  (2)  New  machinery  of  assessment  working 
under  the  old  constitution,  which  requires  a  uniform  rate  of  tax  upon 
all  kinds  of  property,  and  which  requires  the  state,  the  county,  and 
the  municipality,  to  procure  much  of  their  revenues  from  the  same 
source — the  general  property  tax.  The  first  of  these  ways  is  not  now 
open  to  North  Carolina.  The  failure  of  the  voters  in  1914  to  accept 
the  proposed  amendment,  which  would  allow  the  Legislature  the  right 
to  make  classes  of  taxables  and  rates  and  also  to  separate  the  State's 
sources  of  revenue  from  those  of  the  county,  the  municipality,  and 
the  other  units  of  government,  has  blocked  for  the  time  the  first  way 
to  reform.  North  Carolina,  if  she  secures  any  reform  in  assessment 
and  taxation,  must  travel  for  a  time  along  the  second  way.  Our  Con- 
stitution cannot  for  a  time  be  amended.  Neither  can  we  endure  much 
longer  such  glaring  defects  of  assessment  and  taxation  as  we  have 
4 


50  County  Government 

long  had.  We  must  change  that  which  we  have  the  authority  to 
change — the  machinery  of  assessment.  The  constitution  places  prac- 
tically no  restrictions  upon  the  Legislature  as  it  makes  provision  for 
the  assessment  of  taxables.  The  defects  of  our  present  system  are 
largely  of  assessment  rather  than  of  taxation.  But  assessment  in 
practice  depends  to  a  considerable  extent  upon  the  kind  of  taxes  and 
their  rates — that  is  whether  the  rates  are  such  as  to  encourage  or  dis- 
courage a  fair  assessment  of  the  taxables.  Taxes  depend,  of  course, 
upon  assessments;  they  reach  only  the  property  or  the  privilege  that  is 
listed  on  the  assessment  books. 

What  is  the  present  machinery  of  assessment?  What  is  it  that  we 
may  make  more  effective  in  our  present  system  of  assessment  and  tax- 
ation? 

The  State  Tax  Commission 

The  legislature  has  provided  that  the  State  Corporation  Ck)mmis- 
sion  shall  also  act  as  the  State  Bank  Commission,  and  as  the  State 
Tax  Commission.  This  body  is  given  the  authority  to  supervise  and 
to  direct  all  the  work  of  assessment  performed  by  the  county  and  town- 
ship assessment  officials.  It  is  also  empowered,  as  the  State  Board  of 
Equalization,  to  equalize  the  assessments  as  between  the  various  coun- 
ties. It  is  required  to  put  forth  its  best  efforts  to  cause  all  assess- 
ments in  the  State  to  be  relatively  just  and  uniform,  and  to  be  as  close 
to  the  true  money  value  of  the  taxables  as  possible.  In  order  to  secure 
this  result,  the  Tax  Commission  has  the  right  to  institute  proceed- 
ings, to  order  reassessment,  to  equalize  the  assessments  of  a  county 
as  a  whole  as  compared  with  other  counties  as  a  whole,  and  to  bring 
charges  against  the  local  offices  of  assessment. 

The  powers  of  the  State  Tax  Commission  are  seemingly  adequate  to 
obtain  a  large  amount  of  uniformity  of  assessment  as  between  the 
different  citizens  of  a  township,  as  between  the  different  townships  of 
a  county,  and  as  between  the  different  counties  of  the  State.  But  the 
commission  has  never  been  able  to  secure  anything  like  the  uniformity 
of  assessment  that  efficiency  and  fairness  demand.  It  has  rarely  ex- 
ercised its  powers  to  equalize  the  assessments  as  between  the  various 
counties  of  the  State.  It  has  rarely  exercised  with  vigor  its  powers 
over  the  local  officers  of  assessment.  There  are  a  good  many  reasons 
for  its  failure  to  obtain  anything  like  the  necessary  equity  as  between 
taxpayers.  The  Legislature  which  made  the  State  Corporation  Com- 
mission also  the  State  Tax  Commission  was  willing  to  provide  only  a 
small  extra  wage  to  each  of  the  three  members  in  payment  for  their 
labors  as  tax  commissioners.  Public  opinion  has  never  demanded  with 
emphasis  that  the  Tax  Commission  exercise  all  of  its  powers  to  secure 
uniformity  and  justice  in  assessments.  The  Legislature  has  never 
made  provision  for  well-paid  and  capable  local  officers  of  assessment — 


In  North  Carolina  51 

for  those  who  really  must  do  the  important  work  of  placing  tax- 
able values  on  the  books.  Without  provision  for  effective  local  officers, 
it  is  absolutely  impossible  for  the  Tax  Commission  to  do  anything 
of  an  important  nature  toward  fair  assessment.  Without  effective  local 
officers  of  assessment,  the  Tax  Commission  can  do  little  in  its  super- 
ficial work  of  revising  the  assessments  of  those  taxables  which  the 
local  officers  put  upon  the  books,  however  effectively  the  commission 
may  do  its  special  work  of  the  assessment  of  certain  taxable  values. 

The  County  Assessor 

It  has  been  the  custom  in  North  Carolina  for  a  good  many  years 
to  have  a  reassessment  of  all  real  estate  every  fourth  year.  This 
quadrennial  assessment  of  realty — and  the  buildings  are  included  in 
the  land — stands  until  the  next  fourth  year  comes  around,  unless  im- 
portant damages  are  done  to  the  buildings  or  unless  important  addi- 
tions are  made  to  them.  In  this  case,  an  additional  valuation  is  fixed 
every  year — rather  in  the  year  of  the  changes.  In  the  quadrennial 
year  there  is  an  officer  of  assessment  for  the  county  as  a  whole.  He 
has  the  title  of  county  assessor  and  is  appointed  by  the  State  Tax 
Commission,  to  serve  as  the  supervisor  of  the  assessment  of  the  realty 
and  personalty  as  they  exist  in  the  quadrennial  year.  He  must  be  a 
freeholder  in  the  county  of  which  he  is  the  assessor.  He  may  receive 
a  wage  as  large  as  $4  per  day  for  the  time  necessary  for  his  work; 
the  Board  of  County  Commissioners  is  to  judge  how  long  it  is  neces- 
sary for  him  to  labor,  and  also  to  decide  whether  his  wage  shall  be 
as  much  as  $4  per  day.  It  is  the  duty  of  the  county  assessor  to  meet 
with  the  township  assessors  the  first  of  May,  and  to  instruct  them  as 
to  their  tasks.  It  is  also  his  duty  to  visit  the  township  assessor  or 
assessors  at  least  one  day  during  the  period  of  assessment.  He  has  the 
power  to  instruct  and  advise  the  township  assessors  and  to  urge  them 
to  change  their  assessment  valuations.  He  and  the  township  assessors 
may  revise  the  assessments  as  made  by  them.  The  county  assessor 
usually  puts  in  from  50  to  75  working  days  in  the  year;  his  job,  while 
theoretically  lasting  for  a  year,  really  ends  when  the  assessment  re- 
turns are  made  to  the  County  Board  of  Equalization. 

The  Township  Assessor 

The  actual  work  of  placing  the  taxables  upon  the  books  and  of  fix- 
ing valuations  upon  them,  is  not  done  by  the  county  assessor  in  the 
quadrennial  year,  but  by  the  township  assessor;  in  three  years  out 
of  four  this  work  is  entirely  done  by  the  township  assessor.  The 
township  has  in  the  three  years  in  which  realty  is  not  reassessed  only 
one  assessor;  in  the  quadrennial  year  it  may  have  two  or  three  asses- 


52  County  Government 

sors.  The  township  assessor  must  also  be  a  freeholder  in  his  town- 
ship, and  he  is  appointed  by  the  Board  of  County  Ck)mmissioners.  He 
gives  his  services  to  the  task  of  assessment  from  the  1st  of  May  to  the 
30th  of  June — if  so  much  time  is  necessary.  He  cannot  receive  more 
than  $3  a  day  per  working  day;  it  may  be  as  small  a  wage  as  $2  per 
day.  To  obtain  a  man  who  is  willing  to  give  all  his  time  for  such  a 
period — from  25  to  50  working  days  in  the  year — for  the  insignificant 
pay  of  from  two  to  three  dollars  per  day  is  the  task  that  confronts  the 
Board  of  County  Commissioners  each  year.  They  find  it  so  difficult 
to  secure  the  services  of  a  capable  man,  that  they  usually  employ  a 
man  who  has  no  special  fitness  for  the  task,  and  who  not  infrequently 
has  no  occupation  for  the  time.  The  township  assessor  makes  his  re- 
turns to  the  county  assessor  in  the  quadrennial  year;  in  the  other 
years  he  makes  his  returns  to  the  Board  of  County  Commissioners. 

There  are  nearly  one  thousand  townships  in  North  Carolina,  and  in 
each  one  of  these  units  of  government  such  an  officer — in  the  quad- 
rennial year  two  or  more  such  officers — performs  the  difficult  task  of 
finding  out  all  forms  of  taxables  and  of  fixing  valuations  upon  them — 
all  forms  of  taxables  except  those  of  a  general  public  nature,  which 
it  is  the  duty  of  the  State  Tax  Commission  to  assess.  The  township 
assessor  is  in  theory  under  the  control  of  the  county  assessor  every 
fourth  year  and  under  the  control  of  the  State  Tax  Commission  every 
year.  In  theory  he  has  a  common  standard  with  which  to  measure 
all  taxables.  In  practice  this  officer  really  makes  his  own  standard. 
Consequently,  we  have  nearly  as  many  standards  of  assessment  valua- 
tions as  we  have  townships — a  more  unsystematic  and  inequitable  sys- 
tem of  assessment  cannot  easily  be  imagined.  If  each  unit  of  govern- 
ment had  to  carry  all  its  expenses,  and  if  there  were  no  county  and 
state  rates  levied  upon  these  township  assessments,  such  a  system  of 
assessment  would  not  be  particularly  bad.  But  in  North  Carolina,  at 
least,  the  State  rate  and  the  county  rate,  as  well  as  the  township  and 
municipal  rates,  are  levied  upon  these  township  assessments. 

The  County  Board  of  Equalization 

Each  county  has  a  general  supervisory  body  for  all  of  its  townships — 
the  County  Board  of  Equalization  of  Assessments.  This  body  is  the 
Board  of  County  Commissioners.  The  board  meets  early  in  July  in 
the  reassessment  year,  and  the  county  assessor  meets  with  it  as  an 
adviser.  The  board  may  raise  the  assessments  in  one  township  as  com- 
pared to  another,  of  one  citizen  as  compared  to  another.  The  board 
may  lower  the  assessments.  It,  however,  acts  only  upon  complaint, 
and  complaints  are  rarely  made.  Some  idea  of  the  effort  put  forth  by 
the  County  Board  of  Equalization  may  be  obtained  from  the  fact  that 
the  board  disposes  of  its  tasks  in  a  few  hours.     Should  the  board  be 


In  N'oeth  Caeolina  53 

disposed  to  act  with  much  vigor,  it  would  find  itself  attempting  to  do 
the  practically  impossible.  It  cannot  make  assessments  itself,  and  it 
can  do  very  little  towards  changing  those  made  by  the  township 
assessors;  at  most  it  can  order  a  reassessment  of  certain  taxables — 
out  of  many  thousands  in  the  various  townships  in  the  county. 

Defects  in  Present  System 

The  defects  in  the  present  system  of  assessment  in  North  Carolina 
may  be  summarized  as  follows: 

1.  The  State  Tax  Commission  has  many  other  tasks — those  of  the 
State  Corporation  Commission  and  those  of  the  State  Bank  Commission. 
It  has  slight  energy  left  to  perform  the  difficult  task  of  supervising 
the  work  of  assessment  by  the  county  and  township  assessment  officers. 
It  may  do  effectively  its  own  special  assessment  work — that  of  the 
valuation  of  the  public  service  and  certain  other  corporate  properties, 
but  it  does  not  perform  with  efficiency  its  task  of  supervising  the 
assessments  made  by  the  local  officers. 

2.  The  local  assessors  work  only  a  few  days  in  the  year,  and  they 
are  so  poorly  paid  that  no  one  can  reasonably  expect  them  to  do  effec- 
tively the  difficult  work  of  discovering  taxable  values  and  of  putting 
them  on  the  books.  They  are  rarely  chosen  because  of  their  knowl- 
edge. They  do  their  work  without  accurate  standards  of  valuation 
and  without  effective  supervision.  We  have  nearly  a  thousand  such 
local  units  of  assessment,  each  with  its  own  standard,  performing  the 
most  vital  task  in  our  whole  system  of  assessment. 

3.  The  County  Board  of  Equalization,  composed  as  it  is  and  paid  as 
it  is,  cannot  be  expected  to  render  the  expert  service  necessary  for  a 
real  equalization  of  the  assessment  valuations  as  between  the  different 
citizens  of  a  township  and  as  between  the  different  townships  within 
the  county.  And  in  practically  every  instance  it  does  not  do  the  un- 
expected— it  does  not  equalize  the  assessment  valuations. 

4.  Theoretically  we  have  assessment  by  officials.  In  practice  we  very 
largely  have  assessment  by  the  owner  of  the  taxables;  and  this  assess- 
ment is  in  a  great  majority  of  cases  final — stands  unrevised.  Under 
our  system  of  self  assessment  by  the  owner  of  the  taxables,  we  have 
the  following  results:  (a)  The  more  conscientious  citizen  places 
higher  valuations  upon  his  taxable,  the  less  conscientious,  lower  val- 
uations; (b)  The  same  kind  of  property  goes  on  the  assessment  books 
at  valuations  varying  from  5  per  cent  of  the  real  value  to  100  per 
cent;  (c)  Some  property,  even  as  tangible  as  land,  is  not  assessed  at 
all;  (d)  One  kind  of  taxables  is  penalized,  while  another  escapes  the 
burden  of  taxation;  the  most  tangible  forms  bear  a  larger  share,  the 
less  tangible  forms,  a  smaller  share,  or  no  share  at  all — the  taxes  on 


54  County  Government 

dogs  not  infrequently  produce  more  revenue  than  those  on  moneys, 
bonds,  and  stocks;  (e)  Moneys  and  securities,  if  assessed  at  all,  must 
go  on  the  books  at  par,  while  lands  and  other  tangible  forms  as  an 
average  are  put  on  the  books  at  from  20  per  cent  to  60  per  cent  of 
their  sale  value;  (/)  One  township  makes  a  larger  contribution  to  the 
county  income  than  its  proportionate  share,  another,  a  much  smaller 
contribution;  (g)  One  county  pays  a  larger  proportionate  share  of  the 
State's  burden  than  another — a  good  many  of  the  famous  "pauper  coun- 
ties" are  really  well-to-do;  {h)  Even  as  tangible  a  form  of  property 
as  land  is  assessed  in  one  county  at  20  per  cent  of  its  real  value,  in 
another,  at  60  per  cent;  (i)  A  premium  is  placed  upon  inequality,  injus- 
tice, and  even  dishonesty. 

More  Effective  Officers  Needed 

It  is,  therefore,  clear  that  the  present  system  of  assessment  is  far 
from  effective  and  equitable.  It  is  also  clear  that  prevention  is  better 
than  cure — that  it  is  far  better  to  prevent  the  gross  inequality  in  assess- 
ments by  putting  the  taxables  on  the  books  on  an  equitable  basis, 
either  on  the  basis  of  cash  value  or  on  the  basis  of  a  uniform  percentage 
of  cash  value,  than  it  is  to  attempt  to  eliminate  the  inequalities  by  the 
process  of  superficial  equalization.  The  Constitution  of  North  Caro- 
lina requires  that  all  taxable  properties  shall  be  assessed  alike  at  their 
cash  value,  and  that  there  shall  be  no  difference  in  the  rates  of  taxes 
levied  upon  the  different  classes  of  property.  The  Legislature  enacts 
that  all  taxable  property  shall  be  put  upon  the  tax  books  at  true  cash 
value.  In  spite  of  these  requirements  by  law,  our  assessments  are  far 
from  true  cash  values  and  far  from  equality  of  valuation.  We  must, 
therefore,  put  forth  our  greatest  efforts  to  prevent  the  great  inequali- 
ties of  assessment  which  fundamentally  characterize  our  present  sys- 
tem. Until  we  can  amend  the  Constitution,  so  as  to  authorize  our 
Legislature  to  make  classes  of  taxables  and  rates  and  perhaps  to  make 
some  separation  of  the  sources  of  State  revenue  from  those  of  the 
local  units  of  government,  we  must  do  as  the  citizens  of  other  states 
have  done — make  the  effort  to  prevent  the  defects  of  assessment  by 
providing  machinery  which  has  the  capacity,  the  independence,  and 
the  courage  to  fix  the  assessment  valuations  at  the  beginning  as  nearly 
accurate  as  possible.  It  is  time  that  we  should  acknowledge  that  the 
attempt  to  eliminate  such  inequalities  as  we  have  long  had  by  the 
method  of  equalizing  the  assessments  after  they  are  put  on  the  books 
is  at  best  very  inefficient. 

Can  we  not  soon  come  in  North  Carolina  to  the  conviction  that  no 
system  of  assessment  is  equitable  and  effective  unless  it  has  as  its 
brain  and  heart  courageous  and  well-paid  officials?  The  experiences 
of  other  states,  as  well  as  those  of  our  own,  should  compel  us  to  come 


In  North  Carolina  55 

immediately  to  such  a  conviction.  So  great  has  been  the  failure  of 
self-assessment  under  the  direction  of  local  assessors,  that  state  after 
state  has  decided  to  make  their  central  control  over  assessments  much 
more  powerful.  More  than  half  of  our  states,  in  order  to  bring  about 
a  more  effective  system,  have  created  a  permanent  office  of  a  state  tax 
commission  or  commissioner.  In  a  number  of  our  states,  this  oflBce 
has  been  endowed  with  large  powers  to  assess  the  public  service  and 
certain  other  corporate  properties,  and  to  direct  and  supervise  the 
assessment  of  all  other  taxable  property  by  the  local  officers.  I  be- 
lieve that  the  experiences  of  these  states  have  shown  the  efficiency 
of  an  appointive  state  tax  commission— as  independent  of  politics  as 
possible,  and  composed  of  capable  business  men  or  tax  experts.  The 
experiences  of  these  states  have  shown  that,  vir'hen  such  officials  have 
devoted  all  their  time  and  thought  to  assessment,  there  have  been 
immediately  large  increases  in  assessment  valuations — ranging  from  50 
per  cent  in  Indiana  to  six-fold  in  Kansas — and  that  there  has  been  much 
greater  equity  as  between  the  individual  taxpayers,  as  between  the  town- 
ships within  the  county,  and  as  between  the  counties  within  the  state. 

I  believe  that  North  Carolina  should  go  further  than  it  has  gone  in 
the  matter  of  providing  a  central  control  over  assessments.  We  have 
had  for  a  good  many  years  such  control  vested  in  the  hands  of  the 
members  of  the  State  Corporation  Commission,  which  also  acts  as 
the  State  Bank  Commission.  I  do  not  mean  to  criticize  unduly  the 
short-comings  of  this  commission.  It  has,  without  any  doubt,  brought 
some  improvement  in  our  work  of  assessment.  My  contention  is  that 
we  could  have  a  greater  improvement,  if  the  Legislature  would  create 
a  separate  state  tax  commission,  would  make  provision  for  adequate 
salaries,  and  would  require  the  members  to  give  their  entire  time  to 
the  task  of  assessing  certain  classes  of  taxables  and  to  the  task  of 
working  with  the  local  officers  of  assessment  to  secure  fair  assessments 
of  the  other  classes  of  taxables. 

This  new  state  tax  commission  should  be  endowed  with  power  and 
authority:  (1)  To  exercise  general  supervision  over  the  whole  system 
of  assessment  and  taxation;  (2)  To  examine  candidates  for  the  office 
of  county  or  district  assessor,  and  perhaps  appoint  them;  (3)  To  pre- 
scribe rules  for  the  local  assessors  and  formulate  standards  of  assess- 
ment valuation  for  their  use,  as  well  as  advise  and  instruct  them  and 
direct  their  work;  (4)  To  require  the  county  and  municipal  officers 
to  supply  all  available  information  as  to  the  real  value  of  taxables; 
(5)  To  summons  witnesses  and  take  depositions  of  witnesses  as  to 
actual  values,  as  well  as  to  visit  the  assessment  districts;  (6)  To  assess 
the  taxable  values  of  the  public  service  and  certain  other  corporations; 
(7)  To  order  reassessment  by  the  local  assessors,  and  to  hear  com- 
plaints about  assessments;    (8)  To  equalize,  by  lowering  or  raising  the 


66  County  Government 

assessed  valuations  as  between  counties  or  other  assessment  districts 
of  the  State;  (9)  To  have  specific  supervision  over  the  privilege,  license, 
income,  and  inheritance  taxes;  (10)  To  begin  and  direct  proceedings 
or  prosecutions  to  enforce  all  the  assessment  and  tax  laws. 

Not  only  is  it  necessary  to  have  a  more  powerful  central  control  over 
the  work  of  assessment,  but  it  is  also  necessary — even  more  neces- 
sary— to  have  effective  local  officers  of  assessment.  In  our  present 
system  the  township  assessor  is  the  vital  factor.  He  holds  his  office 
for  only  a  few  days  in  each  year  and  his  wage  is  so  small,  that  it  is 
practically  impossible  to  command  the  services  of  a  capable  officer. 
Our  local  unit  of  assessment  should  be  made  for  the  most  part  much 
larger — into  a  county  and  in  some  cases  into  a  district  composed  of 
two  or  more  counties.  It  should  be  large  enough  to  make  It  practicable 
to  maintain  a  permanent  office  and  to  fill  it  with  an  effective  and 
courageous  officer.  The  district  assessor  should  be  an  expert  in  values, 
and  should  be  required,  both  by  law  and  by  the  State  Tax  Commission, 
to  fix  valuations  for  assessment  purposes  as  nearly  at  actual  values  as 
possible.  True  valuation,  rather  than  favoritism  to  any  special  citizen 
or  interest,  should  be  his  constant  guide.  His  salary  should  be  com- 
mensurate with  the  size  and  responsibility  of  his  task — perhaps  from 
$1,500  to  $2,500  per  year;  and  he  should  be  allowed  as  many  assistants 
as  the  demands  of  his  district  call  for.  He  should  perhaps  be  appointed 
by  the  State  Tax  Commission — he  should  certainly  be  responsible  to  it — 
to  serve  for  a  term  of  say  six  years  or  perhaps  for  good  behavior 
should  the  Constitution  permit.  Should  the  Legislature  decide  that 
this  district  assessor  should  be  elected  by  the  people,  or  should  be 
appointed  by  the  county  commissioners,  the  State  Tax  Commission 
should  be  empowered  to  remove  such  an  officer  for  inefficiency  as  well  as 
for  malfeasance  in  office.  It  might  be  a  very  wise  thing  for  the  Legis- 
lature to  abolish  the  present  office  of  county  treasurer — rather  authorize 
the  appointment  of  a  bank  to  act  as  county  treasurer  without  pay; 
from  the  saving  of  the  salary  of  the  county  treasurer  sufficient  funds 
might  be  saved  with  which  to  pay  for  the  services  of  a  capable  dis- 
trict assessor. 

The  suggested  remedies  are  by  no  means  untried.  Such  a  state  tax 
commission  has  proven  its  value  in  a  good  many  of  our  most  pro- 
gressive states.  Such  a  district  assessor,  as  suggested,  has  also  proven 
to  be  a  great  success  in  several  of  our  states.  The  suggested  changes 
In  our  assessment  machinery,  which  I  have  taken  the  liberty  to  make, 
can  be  brought  about  without  amending  our  Constitution.  Such  changes 
can,  therefore,  be  made  by  the  Legislature  whenever  it  desires  to 
make  them. 


In  North  Carolina  57 

Amendments  to  Constitution  Needed 

To  bring  into  service  in  North  Carolina  the  most  successful  assess- 
ment and  taxation  system  possible,  it  is  necessary  for  the  Constitution 
to  be  amended.  The  requirement  of  a  uniform  tax  rate  upon  all  kinds 
of  taxable  property,  however  different  in  their  nature,  their  value  to 
the  community,  or  their  tangibility  to  the  assessor's  eye — which  re- 
quirement the  Constitution  now  places  upon  the  Legislature  and  upon 
all  the  administrative  officers  of  assessment  and  taxation — must  be 
eliminated  before  North  Carolina  can  have  the  most  perfect  system  of 
assessment  and  taxation  possible. 

This  requirement  of  the  Constitution  means  that  the  State,  the 
county,  the  township,  and  the  municipality  must  tax  all  taxable  prop- 
erty with  the  same  rate  regardless  of  the  nature  of  the  property. 
This  rigid  requirement  of  a  uniform  ad  valorem  rate  explains  in  part 
the  remarkable  ineffectiveness  and  injustice  in  our  present  system  of 
assessing  and  taxing  general  property.  To  tax  all  kinds  of  property 
at  a  uniform  rate  is  most  certainly  unfair,  unless  the  values  of  all 
of  its  forms  are  put  upon  the  assessor's  books  with  equal  accuracy; 
and  it  may  be  reasonably  doubted  whether  such  a  rate  is  fair  even  when 
the  assessment  is  made  accurately.  It  is  true  that  kinds  of  property 
differ  in  their  value  and  in  their  relationship  to  the  community  in 
which  they  are  situated  and  to  the  government  to  which  they  owe  their 
contribution.  Whether  this  difference  is  sufficiently  real  as  to  necessi- 
tate a  difference  in  the  rate  of  tax  levied  or  not,  it  is  impossible  to 
doubt  that  properties  differ  as  to  their  tangibility  to  the  assessor's  eye. 
All  will  agree  that  some  forms  of  property  are  easily  put  upon  the 
assessment  books,  and  that  other  forms  are  put  upon  the  books  with 
difficulty  and  uncertainty.  The  uniform  ad  valorem  rate  falls  more 
heavily  upon  the  taxpayer  whose  mind  and  conscience  are  more  tangi- 
ble and  upon  the  more  tangible  forms  of  property.  The  citizen  whose 
property  is  less  tangible,  as  a  rule,  does  damage  to  his  conscience  and 
to  his  duty  to  his  community;  our  present  system  of  assessment  is 
so  notably  ineffective,  that  it  practically  leaves  the  assessment  of  his 
property  to  his  elastic  conscience.  Moneys,  credits,  etc.,  if  assessed 
at  all,  must  be  put  upon  the  books  at  par  value.  They  are  self-assessing 
whenever  the  mind  and  heart  of  the  citizen  are  pure  and  unselfishly 
patriotic  to  his  community.  In  actual  practice  very  small  amounts  of 
moneys  and  credits  reach  the  assessor's  books,  except  the  moneys 
and  credits  which  trustees  hold  for  widows,  orphans,  and  minors — 
which  intangible  properties  most  generally  get  on  the  assessor's  books. 
The  values  of  land,  houses,  and  many  other  forms  of  property  are  at 
best  only  estimates;  and  these  estimates  vary  within  a  remarkably 
large  range. 


58  County  Government 

With  a  constitutional  amendment  providing  for  the  classification  of 
taxables  and  rates — abolishing  the  uniform  rate  on  all  forms  of  tax- 
ables — the  Legislature  could  provide  a  plan  for  making  certain  forms 
of  property,  as,  for  instance,  moneys  and  credits,  into  separate  classes 
and  for  taxing  these  classes  at  rates  that  would  encourage  them  to 
come  from  hiding  and  be  placed  upon  the  assessment  books.  Could 
this  be  done,  the  task  of  assessment  for  all  the  officers  of  assessment 
would  be  considerably  reduced  in  its  complexity. 

One  of  the  popular  propositions  on  tax  reform  now  under  considera- 
tion in  North  Carolina  is  that  to  segregate  the  source  of  revenue  for 
the  different  units  of  government — that  the  State  should  take  to  itself 
those  sources  which  are  more  nearly  state-wide  (taxes  on  corpora- 
tions, inheritances,  income,  franchise,  etc.),  and  leave  to  the  local 
communities — the  county,  town,  etc.— those  sources  which  are  more 
essentially  local  in  their  nature.  The  Constitution  now  forbids  such 
segregation. 

Shall  our  Constitution  be  so  amended  as  to  allow  the  Legislature  to 
make  a  reasonable  separation  of  the  sources  of  revenue?  The  question 
of  the  separation  of  the  sources  of  revenue  for  the  State  and  its  local 
units  of  administration  is  far  from  being  a  simple  one.  Certain  of 
our  states  have  had  partial  separation  with  fair  success — Connecticut, 
New  York,  New  Jersey,  etc.  These  states  have  not  entirely  abandoned 
the  general  property  tax  for  state  purposes.  They  have  merely  dis- 
continued the  rigid  application  of  the  rule  of  taxing  all  kinds  of 
property  for  state  purposes;  they  occasionally  levy  a  state  rate  upon 
the  general  property  of  all  the  communities.  It  should  be  noted  that 
the  states  which  have  had  the  greatest  success  with  the  separation  of 
state  and  local  revenues  are  industrial  rather  than  agricultural.  They 
have  a  sufficiently  large  amount  of  income  from  a  state  rate  levied 
upon  certain  classes  of  taxables.  But  it  is  to  be  questioned  whether 
North  Carolina  has  a  sufficiently  large  amount  of  taxable  values  in 
these  special  forms.  It  should  also  be  borne  in  mind,  that  the  ten- 
dency in  all  the  states  which  have  had  the  separation  of  state  and 
local  revenues  has  been  towards  extravagance  on  the  part  of  state  ex- 
penditures. Since  the  majority  of  the  citizens  under  such  separation 
pay  no  tax  directly  to  the  State,  they  have  little  interest  in  the  ques- 
tion as  to  how  much  the  State  shall  spend.  It  should  also  be  borne 
in  mind,  that  in  North  Carolina,  and  in  a  large  number  of  the  states, 
the  State  government  rather  than  that  of  the  county  or  municipality 
is  the  vital  unit  of  administration ;  and  it  must  be  from  the  very  nature 
of  its  tasks.  The  state  treasury  of  North  Carolina  must  continue  to 
render  for  many  years  important  aid  in  the  development  of  the  elemen- 
tary schools  in  the  rural  sections,  and  toward  the  building  and  main- 
tenance of  more  effective  highways  and  conditions   of  public   health. 


In  Noeth  Carolina  59 

This  means  that  the  state  treasury  should  not  be  handicaped  for  lack 
of  funds  because  it  may  not  receive  the  proceeds  of  a  state  tax  on  the 
general  property  in  the  various  communities.  For  this  reason,  I  be- 
lieve that  it  would  be  unwise  for  North  Carolina  to  have  a  complete 
and  rigid  separation  of  the  sources  of  State  and  local  revenues.  Still 
I  believe  that  it  is  practicable  for  the  State  to  have  such  separation 
if  elastically  applied. 

The  making  of  the  county  tax  list  and  its  equalization  appear,  on 
the  surface,  as  simple  problems.  But  to  do  these  tasks  in  a  reasonably 
effective  way,  will  require  that  North  Carolina  give  to  them  her  con- 
structive thinking  and  her  vigorous  efforts. 


60  COTINTY    GoVEENltENT 


CHAPTER  VII 
A  Township  Tax-List  Study 

E.  C.  Branson,  Processor  Rural  Economics  and  Sociology,  University 

of  North  Carolina 

In  the  fall  of  every  year,  in  accord  with  an  established  custom  of  the 
North  Carolina  Club  at  the  University,  a  little  group  of  students  selects 
a  newly  finished  township  tax  list  in  a  typical  county  of  the  State,  and 
subjects  it  to  searching  analysis.  It  is  a  detail  of  their  preparation  for 
competent  citizenship  and  effective  public  service  in  their  home  com- 
munities. 

The  inquiries  are:  Who  pays  taxes?  Where  does  the  burden  of 
taxation  lie?  Is  the  burden  righteously  distributed?  What  are  the 
inequities  and  iniquities  in  our  tax  system  or  lack  of  system?  What  is 
at  fault,  and  who?  How  can  the  faults  be  remedied?  How  remove  tax 
inequalities  (1)  among  individuals  within  township  lines,  (2)  among 
townships  within  county  lines,  and  (3)  among  counties  within  state 
lines?    And  so  on  and  on. 

It  is  a  purely  impersonal  study  of  a  vital  civic  problem.  The  Club 
has  no  more  interest  in  any  one  tax  district  than  in  any  other  or  all 
the  rest.  It  is  busy  with  a  typical  situation  stripped  bare  to  the  bone. 
It  is  in  no  wise  concerned  with  names  and  personalities,  but  with  facts 
and  their  significance. 

This  fall  the  studies  were  led  by  Mr.  S.  H.  Hobbs,  Jr.,  of  Sampson 
County  and  Mr.  Myron  Green  of  Union  County.  All  we  can  do  within 
the  limits  of  this  bulletin  is  to  summarize  their  tables  and  charts  and 
interpret  the  results  in  brief  fashion.  And  this  we  do  in  order  to  blaze 
the  way  for  similar  microscopic  tax-studies  by  Local  Study-Clubs  here 
and  there  throughout  the  State. 

If  the  tax  list  were  being  analyzed  in  this  way  by  a  little  group  of 
intelligent  people  under  the  urge  of  able-bodied  citizenship  in  every 
community  of  North  Carolina  every  year,  we  might  hope  for  reasonable 
reforms  in  our  wretched  tax  situation.  We  are  never  likely  to  get 
under  a  full  headway  of  steam  in  this  matter  until  the  democratic  mul- 
titudes know  far  more  than  they  know  at  present  about  the  amazing 
injustices  that  abound  in  every  tax  List — no  more  of  them  in  any  one 
county  than  in  any  or  all  of  the  rest. 


In  North  Carolina  61 

Everybody  knows  in  a  vague,  general  way,  that  something  is  wrong 
with  our  tax  system — somewhere,  somehow;  but  what  everybody  does 
not  know  is  what  the  facts  are  in  concrete,  accurate  detail.  There  is 
no  cure  like  publicity  for  wrongs  in  a  democracy.  Give  the  folks  the 
facts,  whatever  they  are,  and  the  folks  will  do  the  rest.  The  tax  prob- 
lem is  intensely  a  human-nature  problem,  and  nothing  probes  human 
nature  like  publicity. 

But  at  present  nobody  knows  the  facts.  That  is  to  say,  nobody  but 
the  tax  listers,  the  registers,  and  the  sheriffs.  And  they  are  dumb 
because  their  official  lives  depend  on  silence. 

Aside  from  The  Book,  the  most  important  book  in  any  county  is  the 
Tax  List,  and  it  is  the  one  book  that  the  people  in  general  know  least 
about. 

But  little  Local  Study-Clubs  in  North  Carolina  can  dig  out  the  facts 
in  every  tax  list.  What  the  North  Carolina  Club  finds  in  the  particular 
townships  that  have  passed  under  scrutiny  from  year  to  year  can  be 
found  in  any  township  anywhere  in  the  State.  What  these  Club  mem- 
bers are  doing  here  is  exactly  what  a  little  group  of  intelligent  people  is 
doing  in  Westchester,  Suffolk,  and  Nassau  counties.  New  York  State, 
in  Cook  County,  Illinois,  and  in  Alameda  County,  California.  And  we 
ought  to  have  little  groups  of  full-statured  citizens  busy  in  this  way 
in  every  county  in  North  Carolina.  The  cumulative  effect  of  such  work 
is  beyond  estimate. 

Mr.  R.  D.  W.  Connor,  our  state  historian,  Mr.  A.  M.  Coates,  the  presi- 
dent of  the  North  Carolina  Club,  Mr.  D.  L.  Gore  of  New  Hanover,  and 
a  score  or  more  of  our  Club  correspondents  think  the  time  is  ripe  for 
Local  Study-Clubs,  busy  with  this  and  a  hundred  other  matters  of  local 
and  state-wide  importance.  Our  hope  is  that  this  and  other  club  studies 
will  lead  into  large  results  beyond  campus  walls  in  North  Carolina. 

What  the  Tax  List  Discloses 

An  analysis  of  a  1917  tax  list  of  a  typical  township  in  a  mid-state 
county  of  North  Carolina: 

1.  Population — 4,200.     Whites  outnumber  the  negroes  2  to  1. 

2.  Total  Taara&^es— ?2,400,095. 

(1)  Negro  real  estate  and  personalty %      163,108 

(2)  White  real  estate  and  personalty 1,736,287 

(3)  Corporation  real  estate  and  personalty 500,700 

Real  estate  and  personalty  are  almost  exactly  half-and-half.  A  third 
of  the  personalty  consists  of  solvent  credits. 


62  County  Government 

3.  Total  Taxpayers — 1,442.  They  are  34  per  cent  of  the  population. 
White  taxpayers  1,051;  negroes  391.  Paying  on  polls  only:  whites  77, 
negroes  64.  Owning  farm  land:  whites  400,  negroes  123.  Owning  town 
lots:   whites  258,  negroes  107. 

(1)  Two-thirds  of  the  entire  population  pay  no  taxes  of  any  sort. 
Three-fifths  of  the  whites  and  three-fourths  of  the  negroes  pay  no  taxes. 

(2)  A  tenth  of  the  taxpayers  (141)   pay  on  polls  only. 

(3)  Half  of  the  property  taxpayers  pay  on  personalty  only. 

(4)  Half  of  the  property  taxpayers  are  landowners,  owning  farm 
land  or  town  lots,  or  both. 

(5)  Nearly  half  of  the  white  males  liable  for  poll  tax  (between  21 
and  50  years  of  age)  are  not  on  the  tax  list.  This  fraction  represents 
defaulters  and  exempts  on  account  of  war  service  or  poverty.  No  record 
is  kept  of  these  exempts.     Two-thirds  of  the  negro  polls  are  defaulters. 

(6)  It  appears  that  unless  a  man  has  property  to  pay  taxes  on  he 
does  not  bother  (and  is  not  bothered)  to  pay  on  his  poll  alone.  At  this 
rate  100,000  polls  liable  to  tax  in  North  Carolina  are  defaulters  or  ex- 
empts. They  represent  a  loss  of  state  and  county  revenues  of  some 
$200,000  a  year. 

4-  Distribution  of  Taxables. 

(1)  Nearly  a  fifth  of  all  the  taxables  (18.7%)  is  listed  by  one  cor- 
poration. 

(2)  More  than  a  third  (37.3%)  of  the  township  taxables  is  listed  by 
5%%  of  the  taxpayers. 

(3)  More  than  half  of  all  the  taxable  property  (56%)  is  owned  by 
73  taxpayers  (corporate  and  private).  They  are  5%%  of  the  taxpayers 
and  less  than  2%  of  the  total  population. 

(4)  A  third  (33%)  of  the  tax  wealth  is  owned  by  about  a  fourth  of 
the  taxpayers  (27%%).  These  are  the  people  who  list  taxables  from 
$1,000  to  $5,000  each.  They  are  substantial  land-owning  farmers,  for 
the  most  part. 

(5)  The  taxables  listed  by  two-thirds  (67%)  of  all  property  taxpayers 
amount  to  barely  more  than  a  tenth  (11%)  of  the  total  taxables.  These 
are  taxpayers  who  list  taxables  of  $1,000  or  less  each,  and  pay  on  per- 
sonalty mainly  or  solely. 

(6)  More  than  half  of  all  the  property  taxpayers  (51%)  own  a  bare 
twentieth  of  the  township  taxables.  These  are  the  people  who  list 
property  ranging  from  $1  to  $500  each,  consisting  of  personalty  almost 
entirely. 

Nearly  two-fifths  of  them  pay  on  less  than  $100  worth  of  property — 
nearly  a  third  of  them  on  less  than  $50  worth. 

(7)  The  tabulation  is  as  follows: 


In  North  Carolina  63 

Per  Cent  of 
Taxpayers  Taxables 

(a)  One  corporation  lists  from  $400,000  to  $500,000 18.7 

(b)  51/2%    (  72)  list  from  $5,001  to  $70,000  each 37.3 

(c)  271/2%    (354)   list  from  $1,001   to   $5,000    each 33.0 

(d)  16     %    (203)   list  from  $501  to  $1,000  each 6.0 

(e)  51     %    (655)   list  from  $1  to  $500  each 5.0 

5.  Classes  of  Property  Taxpayers— 1,385  listing  $2,400,095. 
A.— 655  listing  under  $500  each:  total  $114,162. 

167  from   $  1  to  $  50 

91  from   51  to  100 

156  from   101  to  200 

99  from 201  to  300 

72  from   301  to  400 

71  from   401  to  500 

B.— 203  listing  from  $501  to  $1,000  each:   total  $147,158. 

63  from   $        501  to  $        600 

40  from    601  to  700 

31  from   701  to  800 

39  from   801  to  900 

30  from   901  to  1,000 

C— 354  listing  from  $1,001  to  $5,000  each:   total  $753,891. 

197  from $  1,001  to  $  2,000 

89  from   2,001  to  3,000 

42  from   3,001  to  4,000 

26  from    4,001  to  5,000 

D.—  73  listing  from  $5,001  to  $500,000  each:   total  $1,294,848. 

19  from   $     5,001  to  $     6,000 

11  from   6,001  to         7,000 

8  from   7,001  to         8,000 

6  from   8,001  to         9,000 

3  from   9,001  to       10,000 

12  from   10,001  to       15,000 

4  from  15,001  to  20,000 

8  from  20,001  to  50,000 

1  from  50,001  to  70,000 

1  from  400,000  to  500,000 

6.  Concentration  of  Wealth. 

(1)  Combining  the  two  groups  of  largest  taxpayers  in  the  preceding 
table — classes  C  and  D— we  find  that  427  property  taxpayers  own  tax- 
ables amounting  to  $2,048,739.  These  are  the  people  wlio  list  more  than 
$1,000  worth  of  property  each. 


64  County  Government 

(2)  Which  is  to  say,  less  than  a  third  of  the  property  taxpayers  own 
more  than  four-fifths  of  the  township  taxables. 

(3)  Or,  putting  it  another  way:  one-tenth  of  all  the  people  own  more 
than  nine-tenths  of  all  the  property. 

(4)  Here  is  the  statement  with  which  the  Federal  Commission  on 
Industrial  Relations  startled  the  country  in  1916. 

Whether  true  or  not  true  of  the  country  at  large  with  its  240  billions 
of  wealth,  it  is  true  in  this  little  tax  district  with  its  2%  millions. 
Inferentially  it  is  true  of  the  state  as  a  whole,  and  of  all  the  states. 

One-tenth  looks  like  a  fatal,  universal  ratio.  In  other  words,  about 
nine  out  of  every  ten  people  everywhere  fall  short  of  the  industry,  pru- 
dential foresight,  self-denial,  sagacity,  and  dependableness  that  are 
necessary  to  the  accumulation  of  property.  Or  so  it  seems.  From  hand- 
to-mouth  seems  to  be  a  general  rule  of  life. 

In  this  particular  tax  district  the  matter  of  property  and  poverty  is 
clearly  a  personal  as  well  as  a  social  problem. 

7.  The  Wealthiest  Group:  whose  taxables  on  the  list  are  $5,000  or 
more  each. 

(1)  They  are  not  very  many — only  73  taxpayers;  and  they  are  not 
very  rich.  One  is  a  corporation  listing  some  $400,000  worth  of  taxables. 
The  richest  private  taxpayer  has  less  than  $70,000  on  the  tax  list.  Only 
8  list  taxables  of  more  than  20  and  less  than  50  thousand  dollars. 

Only  16  have  taxables  of  more  than  10  and  less  than  20  thousand 
dollars. 

This  group  is  not  very  rich,  as  we  count  wealth — even  in  North  Caro- 
lina.   Not  very  rich— on  the  tax  list,  at  least. 

(2)  But  they  list  more  taxables  than  all  the  rest  of  the  1,385  property 
taxpayers  put  together.  They  own  more  than  half  of  all  the  taxables 
of  the  township  and  bear  more  than  half  of  the  state  and  county  tax 
burden. 

And  they  are  only  5  per  cent  of  the  poll  and  property  taxpayers. 
They  are  less  than  2  per  cent  of  all  the  people  of  the  township. 

Two  of  these  richest  people  are  negroes. 

These  73  people  are  retired  farmers,  merchants,  bankers,  money 
lenders,  manufacturers,  and  professional  people. 

They  own  less  than  a  seventh  of  the  farm  land  (14%),  but  more  than 
half  or  51  per  cent  of  the  township  real  estate  values — in  town  property 
mostly,  more  than  half  of  the  total  taxables  (51%),  nearly  two-thirds 
of  the  personal  property  (66%),  and  nearly  three-fourths  of  the  solvent 
credits  (72%). 

(3)  Manifestly  they  have  pared  down  their  taxables  to  a  minimum, 
but  evidently  not  more  than  the  small  taxpayers  in  the  township,  the 
county,  or  the  rest  of  the  state. 

(4)  Clearly,  dodging  taxes  is  not  a  peculiar  infirmity  of  the  rich 
alone;  it  is  the  ingrained  habit  of  poor  and  rich  alike  in  North  Carolina. 


In  J^orth  Carolina  65 

What  we  hid  out  from  the  sheriffs  in  1913  was  a  cool  billion  dollars 
worth  of  property.  Our  estimated  actual  wealth  in  North  Carolina  was 
1  billion  800  million  dollars  (Federal  Census  Bulletin);  our  aggregate 
taxables  were  only  800  millions  (State  Corporation  Commission);  the 
difference  was  one  billion  dollars.  This  is  the  wealth  we  solemnly 
swore  we  didn't  have  in  North  Carolina  in  1913. 

(5)  And  there  we  are — in  North  Carolina!  No  wonder  we  lag  behind 
in  our  support  of  popular  education!  No  wonder  our  civic  enterprises 
are  on  a  Cheap- John  scale. 

Where  the  Tax  Burden  Lies 

If  three-fifths  of  the  whites  and  three-fourths  of  the  negroes  of  all 
ages  list  no  property  and  pay  no  taxes  of  any  sort  whatsoever,  not  even 
on  polls;  if  nearly  a  third  of  the  white  polls  and  more  than  half  the 
negro  polls,  21  to  50  years  old,  do  not  appear  on  the  tax  list  at  all;  if 
a  full  half  of  all  the  property  owners  list  less  than  |500  worth  of  tax- 
ables each;  if  73  people  confess  more  taxables  and  pay  more  taxes  than 
all  the  rest  of  the  1,385  taxpayers  of  the  township,  then  it  is  easy  to 
see  who  bears  the  bulk  of  the  tax  burden. 

Doubtless  the  small  taxpayer  finds  it  harder  than  the  well-to-do  to 
pay  taxes,  and  doubtless  the  rich  people  of  the  community  dodge  taxes 
all  they  can;  but  an  impersonal  investigator  is  bound  to  say  after  look- 
ing through  a  tax  list  in  detail  that  the  small  taxpayers  in  North  Caro- 
lina are  dodging  taxes  even  more  than  the  rich,  and  individuals  more 
than  corporations. 

There's  nothing  in  the  way  of  anybody's  dodging  taxes  in  this  state, 
rich  or  poor.  We  pay  on  little  property  or  much  property  or  no  property 
at  all,  about  as  we  please.  All  told,  we  are  hiding  out  a  full  billion 
dollars  worth  of  property  in  North  Carolina — or  so  we  were  in  1913, 
as  the  figures  of  the  Census  Bureau  and  the  State  Tax  Commission 
show. 

Of  course,  these  73  large  taxpayers  are  giving  in  just  as  little  property 
and  paying  just  as  little  taxes  as  they  can!  And  no  wonder,  because 
with  their  taxes  pared  down  to  a  minimum  they  still  bear  more  than 
half  the  entire  tax  burden.  No  wonder  they  balk  when  three-fifths  of 
the  whites  and  three-fourths  of  the  negroes  pay  nothing  to  support 
state  and  county  government — not  even  poll  taxes;  when  167  or  nearly 
an  eighth  of  all  the  taxpayers  pay  property  taxes  ranging  from  1  cent 
to  55  cents  each,  and  when  the  property  taxes  of  nearly  a  fifth  of  all  the 
taxpayers  is  less  than  ?1.10  a  year. 

Jokes  in  the  Tax  List 

If  you  are  a  descendant  of  Joe  Miller,  and  have  a  joke  center  some- 
where in  your  system,  then  you  want  to  peep  into  the  tax  list  in  your 

5 


66  County  Government 

county.  They  are  all  alike.  No  one  of  them  is  funnier  than  the  rest. 
As  for  books  of  fiction — we  write  a  hundred  of  them  in  North  Carolina 
every  year:  they  are  our  County  Tax  Lists!  The  trouble  is,  they  are 
never  published,  and  so  do  not  get  to  the  public.  Only  publicity  will 
ever  edit  our  Munchausen  volumes  properly. 

Here  are  some  of  the  jokes  in  the  tax  returns  of  the  73  well-to-do 
people  in  the  particular  township  under  review: 

The  wealthiest  private  taxpayer  in  the  township  lists  household  goods 
and  utensils,  work-stock,  vehicles,  money,  jewelry— all  personal  prop- 
erty whatsoever  except  solvent  credits — ^at  |216. 

The  next  wealthiest  private  taxpayer  covers  all  these  properties  with 
$105.  He's  a  farmer  and  he's  well-to-do,  but  his  household  furniture, 
farm  animals,  vehicles,  implements,  and  the  like,  are  worth  only  $105 — 
on  the  tax  list. 

Two  negroes  in  the  township,  worth  a  little  more  than  $5,000  each, 
give  in  such  personal  properties  at  $200  and  $615.  In  household  goods 
they  make  a  better  showing  than  the  two  richest  private  taxpayers  in 
the  township. 

Another  large  landowner  covers  his  household  goods,  farm  animals, 
farm  implements,  vehicles,  and  the  like,  with  $82;  another  with  $457, 
and  another  with  $2,272.  The  differences  lie  not  so  much  in  the  prop- 
erties as  in  the  consciences  of  these  big  landlords. 

Solvent  credits,  merchandise,  and  corporation  property  omitted,  the 
personalties  of  these  73  well-to-do  people — household  goods,  animals, 
vehicles,  implements,  jewelry,  libraries,  musical  instruments,  money 
and  so  on — are  as  follows,  and,  mind  you,  these  are  the  richest  people 
in  the  township: 

8  from  $  0  to  $    100 

9  from  100  to  200 

3  from  200  to  300 

5  from  300  to  400 

7  from  400  to  500 

10  from   500  to  750 

2  from  750  to  1,000 

9  from   1.000  to  1,500 

3  from   1,500  to  2,500 

2  from    2,500  to  5,066 

Eleven  of  these  people  are  worth  from  $15,000  to  $70,000  on  the  tax 
books,  and  seven  of  them  cover  all  personal  properties  (except  solvent 
credits)  with  amounts  ranging  from  $0  to  $500  each.  Two  of  them  give 
in  no  personalty  at  all — not  even  solvent  credits. 


In  Nokth  Carolina  67 

Ileal  Estate  Jokes 

The  hugest  jokes  of  all  in  our  tax  system  appear  in  the  assessing  of 
real  estate  "at  its  true  value  in  money  when  sold  in  the  ordinary  man- 
ner of  sale."  The  Machinery  Act  of  the  Legislature  provides  for  the 
assessment  of  farm  land,  timber,  mineral  lands,  and  town  lots  on  this 
basis;  we  have  county  and  township  assessors  every  four  years;  but 
nobody  assesses  any  real  estate  in  the  particular  townships  studied  by 
the  North  Carolina  Club  from  year  to  year — manifestly  not! 

Every  owner  gives  in  his  real  estate  at  any  value,  high  or  low,  just 
as  he  pleases;  all  of  it,  much  or  little  of  it,  or  none  of  it,  just  as  he 
pleases  and  no  tax  officer  says  him  nay — manifestly  not! 

As  a  consequence,  the  real  estate  values  on  the  tax  list  in  the  township 
under  scrutiny  in  1917  range  from  8  to  100  per  cent  of  actual  market 
values — from  low  comedy  on  part  of  artful  dodgers  to  high  tragedy  on 
part  of  tender  consciences — clearly  so. 

For  instance,  the  average  tax  value  of  farm  land  in  the  open  country 
on  this  tax  list  is  $7.89,  while  the  average  market  value  runs  around 
$20.  The  73  largest  taxpayers  give  in  their  farm  holdings  at  values 
ranging  from  $6  to  $20  an  acre.  Thus  the  burden  of  state  and  county 
support  falls  three  or  four  times  as  heavily  on  one  acre  of  farm  land  as 
on  another — on  farms  lying  side  by  side. 

When  we  look  at  suburban  farm  land,  the  joke  grows  in  size.  Here 
the  tax  values  range  from  $17  to  $2,220  an  acre. 

But  the  most  amazing  jokes  appear  in  the  values  put  by  their  owners 
on  improved  town  lots.  In  the  same  end  of  the  town  we  found  three 
handsome  town  properties  worth  around  $15,000  each;  the  tax  values 
were  $550,  $4,400,  $4,950.  In  another  neighborhood,  two  adjoining 
homes  about  equal  in  value  were  listed  at  $500  and  $3,400;  one  at  about 
50  per  cent  and  the  other  at  about  8  per  cent  of  the  actual  value. 

So  on  to  the  end  of  the  chapter.  Jokes  of  this  sort  appear  without 
number  in  every  tax  list  so  far  put  under  the  microscope  by  the  Club. 
They  can  be  found  in  any  township  tax  list,  in  any  county  of  the  state 
by  any  Local  Study-Club  at  any  time. 

Paying  taxes  in  North  Carolina  is  exactly  like  putting  money  into 
the  hat  when  it  is  passed  around  in  church;  everybody  puts  in  much, 
little,  or  nothing,  just  as  he  pleases. 

What  Local  Study-Clubs  Can  Do 

Any  form  of  government — any  plan  or  method — that  overly  tempts 
human  nature  is  bad,  said  Edmund  Burke.  Our  tax  system  overly 
tempts  human  nature,  and  it  is  bad — ^very  bad. 

And  we  have  come  to  feel  that  it  will  never  be  any  better  until  little 
Local  Study-Clubs  all  over  the  state  get  busy  with  its  badness  in  detail. 


68  County  Government 

and  settle  down  to  the  impersonal,  dispassionate  purpose  of  leading  the 
state  into  the  righteousness  that  exalteth  a  people. 

It  is  not  conceivable  that  any  honest  taxpayer  would  pay  more  in  a 
reign  of  tax  righteousness  in  North  Carolina.  He  would  undoubtedly 
pay  less  than  now;  while  many  people  who  now  pay  taxes  on  a  minimum 
valuation  of  taxables  would  be  genuinely  relieved  to  pay  on  an  honest 
basis,  if  only  everybody  else  were  doing  it. 

Properties  honestly  put  on  the  tax  books  in  this  state  would  im- 
mensely increase  our  moral  stamina  and  our  self-respect.  Said  a  tax- 
payer only  the  other  day:  "I  feel  dog-mean  whenever  I  give  in  my 
taxes;  but  I'm  doing  as  well  as  the  rest  and  a  little  better  than  most. 
The  fact  is,  we're  all  rotten  bad  when  it  comes  to  taxes." 

And  he's  right  about  it.  A  substratum  of  social  conscience  of  this 
sort  is  fundamentally  bad — too  bad  to  linger  on  indefinitely  in  North 
Carolina. 

Moreover,  it  is  good  sense  and  good  business  for  a  state  to  show  up 
with  large  tax  values  and  low  tax  rates.  It  shows  a  brisk  and  lively 
prosperity  that  is  attractive  to  outside  capital  and  enterprise. 

On  the  other  hand,  small  tax  values  along  with  low  tax  rates  are  an 
impossible  combination  except  in  static  or  stagnant  communities.  A 
Pittsburgh  capitalist — interested  in  water  works,  gas  plants,  and  street 
railways — said  to  us  some  time  ago:  "I've  always  been  shy  of  North 
Carolina  because  the  report  of  your  State  Tax  Commission  makes  the 
state  look  like  Job's  turkey.  Our  best  chance  for  paying  business  is  in 
prosperous  communities  that  are  not  afraid  of  prosperity  and  the 
visible  signs  of  it."    The  saying  is  worth  thinking  through. 

On  any  basis  of  tax  valuations,  the  essential  matter  is  tax  equaliza- 
tion. The  gross  inequalities  and  injustices  that  exist  at  present  out- 
rage the  sense  of  fairness  and  rob  citizenship  of  its  sense  of  security. 
Justice  and  security  are  so  fundamental  in  civil  societies  that  their 
absence  imperils  the  entire  social  structure. 


In  North  Carolina  69 


CHAPTER  VIII 
The  Fee  System  in  North  Carolina 

E.  C.  Bbanson,  Professor  of  Rural  Economics  and  Sociology, 
University  of  North  Carolina 

What  and  Why 

In  general  it  may  be  said  that  in  most  states,  county  officers  are  paid 
solely  or  mainly  by  fees  and  commissions  allowed  by  law  in  the  dis- 
charge of  regular  official  duties.  These  are  commissions  to  the  sheriff 
for  conserving  peace,  executing  court  orders,  and  in  North  Carolina  for 
collecting  taxes,  to  treasurers  for  safeguarding  county  revenues  and 
paying  out  county  funds,  to  registers  for  recording  titles,  transfers, 
mortgages,  and  in  North  Carolina  for  putting  the  tax  list  in  order  and 
digesting  the  taxes  due,  to  county  court  clerks  for  recording  court 
business  and  rendering  other  public  services  for  which  fees  are 
charged — in  North  Carolina  some  75  or  so.  All  told,  the  tale  of  fees 
and  commissions  in  this  and  other  states  is  bewildering  in  extent  and 
variety.  It  takes  35  pages  of  fine  print  in  Pell's  Revisal  of  1908  to 
detail  the  subject  of  county  office  fees  in  North  Carolina. 

Speaking  of  the  fee  bill  in  Pell's  Revisal,  a  correspondent  of  the 
Club — a  lawyer  of  eminence  and  extended  experience,  says:  Our  fee 
and  salary  bill  ought  to  be  worked  over.  One  clerk  will  figure  out  about 
twice  as  much  as  another  does,  and  it  is  hard  to  tell  which  is  right.  I 
observe  that  several  counties  are  arranging  to  suit  themselves,  result- 
ing in  perplexity  and  confusion.  The  law  about  witness  fees,  tickets, 
proofs,  etc.,  is  alarmingly  confusing.  I  confess  that  I  am  confused 
every  time  I  go  to  find  out  what  ought  to  be  in  a  bill  of  costs  as  to  wit- 
nesses. Witnesses  are  at  sea,  few  of  the  court  officers  can  agree,  the 
lawyer  doesn't  know,  and  even  the  Supreme  Court  sometimes  reverses 
itself  on  this  little  matter  of  paying  witnesses  when  serving  an  indi- 
vidual or  the  state,  in  civil  and  in  criminal  cases.  One  chapter  in  the 
Revisal  with  its  various  sections  is  modified  here,  there,  and  yonder 
by  other  sections  of  equal  importance  and  force. 

Here  is  what  Milton  would  call  "confusion  worse  confounded."  Which, 
being  translated,  means  confounded  confusion;  but  it  is  allowed  to  go 
on  year  after  year  for  long  years. 

The  fee  system  was  the  original  plan  of  compensating  court  and 
county  officers  in  the  United  States.  It  placed  the  burden  of  expense 
on  the  parties  directly  served  or  most  concerned,  and  lightened  the  tax 
levy  on  general  property.  It  offered  specific  rewards  for  particular 
services,  and  stimulated  officials  to  prompt  and  diligent  attention  to 


70  County  Government 

duties.  The  fees  collected  were  their  own.  If  they  charged  their  friends 
and  party  supporters  less  than  the  law  allowed,  or  chose  to  charge 
nothing  at  all,  they  were  punishing  their  own  pockets,  and  it  was 
nobody  else's  business.  If  the  county  offices  produced  enormous  in- 
comes— why,  public  office  was  a  private  snap,  and  that,  too,  was  nobody 
else's  business.  This  in  brief  is  the  type  of  official  mind  that  developed 
under  this  system. 

Under  primitive  conditions  the  plan  worked  well,  and  there  is  per- 
haps no  cheaper  plan  today  in  small  counties,  or  in  sparsely  settled 
communities  where  life  is  simple,  property  values  small,  and  court- 
house business  meagre  and  occasional.  There  are  still  many  court- 
houses in  the  United  States  that  impress  business  men  as  being  ren- 
dezvous for  loafing  and  gossip  and  not  places  of  business;  and  it  is  so 
because  the  business  of  some  or  all  the  offices  is  not  enough  to  keep  the 
office-holders  steadily  busy  six  days  of  the  week  the  year  around  as 
business  men  are  busy  in  their  businesses. 

Salaries  ts.  Fees 

But  as  counties  develop,  as  populations  increase  and  city  life  with  its 
various  activities  and  enterprises  comes  into  existence,  the  fee  system 
offers  rewards  out  of  all  proportion  to  the  services  rendered  in  this  office 
and  that.  How  disproportionate  and  excessive  such  compensations 
have  been  here  and  there,  the  public  is  beginning  to  know  in  only  recent 
years.  And  even  now  very  little  is  accurately  known  about  the  volume 
of  fees  and  commissions  in  the  various  county  offices,  and  the  total  in 
any  one  county  or  state.  Official  fees  have  so  long  been  a  private  matter 
and  the  recording  of  fees  so  rare  that  reticence  on  part  of  court  and 
county  officers  has  become  instinctive,  resistance  to  publicity  ingrained, 
and  exact  fee  totals  almost  impossible  to  determine.  The  auditor  who 
undertakes  to  check  up  the  fees  and  commissions  that  have  been  col- 
lected, or  that  should  have  been  and  were  not  collected,  has  set  himself 
to  a  difficult  task  that  calls  for  rare  competency  and  courage  in  any 
state  under  any  kind  of  law. 

But  gradually  light  is  breaking  in  on  this  most  difficult  subject,  and 
the  public  mind  here  and  there  is  beginning  to  consider  the  matter  of 
court  and  county  fees.  For  instance,  it  was  found  that  the  sheriff  of 
Pulton  County,  Georgia,  a  few  years  ago  was  receiving  in  fees  and  com- 
missions around  $60,000  a  year.  After  the  expenses  of  his  office  were 
paid  his  net  income  was  some  $20,000  a  year,  which  was  three  or  four 
times  the  salary  of  the  Governor  of  the  state.  The  sheriff  of  Cuyahogo 
County,  Ohio,  in  1904  got  out  of  his  office  $15,000  a  year  net,  the  treas- 
urer $23,000,  and  the  auditor  over  $50,000.  The  sheriff  of  New  York 
County  in  1916  was  receiving  a  salary  of  $12,000,  and  $60,000  more  in 
fees.  In  Cook  County,  Illinois,  in  1904  it  was  discovered  that  interest 
and    commissions    in    the    treasurer's   office    amounted    to    more    than 


In  North  Carolina  71 

$500,000  a  year,  and  that  the  treasurer  was  getting  a  net  compensation 
of  more  than  5!200,000  a  year,  or  about  twice  as  much  as  the  President 
of  the  United  States  receives. 

Ohio  Starts  Investigation  in  1902 

By  the  beginning  of  the  new  century  the  scramble  for  county  oflaces 
in  every  state  in  the  Union  had  become  a  national  spectacle  of  scanda- 
lous proportions.  Campaign  charges  and  chance  gossip  about  county 
oflBce  compensations  set  the  people  to  looking  for  crows.  The  first  re- 
ports on  county  office  fees  and  commissions  that  reached  the  public 
eye  were  those  of  the  Ohio  state  auditor  in  1903;  whereupon  the  legis- 
lature promptly  put  all  county  officers  on  a  salary  basis,  and  turned 
all  fees  and  commissions  into  the  county  treasuries.  California,  Colo- 
rado, Idaho,  Montana,  Nevada,  Kentucky,  and  New  Jersey  followed 
suit  in  rapid  succession. 

In  Georgia  in  1912  the  legislature  called  for  sworn  quarterly  state- 
ments from  all  state  and  county  officials  covering  fees  and  extra  com- 
pensations received,  other  than  stated  salaries.  The  purpose  was  to 
round  up  the  totals  of  such  fees,  as  a  basis  upon  which  to  consider  the 
best  method  of  remunerating  state  and  county  officials.  But  it  was 
nobody's  business  to  enforce  the  law,  and  so  in  a  few  years  the  officials 
ignoring  the  law  ranged  from  a  fourth  to  nine-tenths  of  those  required 
to  report.  However,  by  applying  ratios  and  averages  to  the  partial 
reports  that  appear  in  the  1915  Georgia  House  Journal,  it  appears  that 
the  volume  of  extra  compensations  received  by  court  and  county  officials 
of  the  state  was  nearly  three  million  dollars  in  1914;  a  conservative 
estimate  makes  the  total  $2,880,000.  It  is  significant  that  more  than  a 
million  dollars  of  this  amount  was  collected  by  stenographers,  solici- 
tors, and  clerks  of  the  city,  county,  and  circuit  courts  of  the  state. 

Tlie  Yearly  Fee  Bill  in  North  Carolina,  $2,250,000 

Using  the  Georgia  figures  as  a  basis  for  judging,  I  estimate  that  the 
court  and  county  office  fees  in  North  Carolina  amount  to  two  and  a 
quarter  million  dollars  a  year;  about  a  million  of  this  total  going  to  the 
stenographers,  solicitors,  and  clerks  of  the  various  courts,  city,  county, 
and  circuit.  In  the  direct  reports  so  far  received  by  the  North  Caro- 
lina Club,  the  fees  of  the  four  principal  county  offices  range  from  $2,600 
a  year  in  Dare,  where  no  county  officer  receives  as  much  as  a  thousand 
dollars,  to  $43,171  in  Guilford,  where  the  fees  in  1916  paid  the  salary  of 
the  clerk,  the  register,  the  sheriff,  and  the  treasurer,  the  premiums  on 
all  fidelity  bonds,  the  entire  expense  of  the  jail,  and  left  $25,000  for 
roads  and  schools.  It  is  not  extravagant  to  estimate  that  the  average 
total  of  county  office  fees  alone  is  around  $12,500  per  county,  or  $1,- 
250,000  a  year  in  North  Carolina.     And  mind  you,  this  estimate  omits 


72  County  Government 

the  fees  of  witnesses,  stenographers,  and  solicitors  in  the  city,  county, 
and  circuit  courts  of  the  state.  Spealiing  of  court  costs,  one  of  our  Club 
correspondents,  a  distinguished  lawyer,  says:  A  poor  defendant  had 
better  go  to  the  penitentiary  than  to  offer  to  pay  up  the  costs  and  a 
reasonable  fine. 

Changing  from  Fees  to  Salaries  in  North  Carolina 

In  1905  North  Carolina  began  to  substitute  salaries  for  fees,  in  com- 
pensating courthouse  officials,  and  in  that  year  the  legislature  placed 
the  officials  of  Guilford,  Buncombe,  Forsyth,  and  Mecklenburg  on  a 
salary  basis.  By  1915  the  total  of  counties  on  a  salary  basis  was  50, 
while  50  remained  on  a  fee  basis. 

That  is  to  say,  in  North  Carolina  we  were  feeling  our  way  along  inch 
by  inch  instead  of  settling  the  matter  of  county  office  compensation 
suddenly  in  a  wholesale  way  as  in  Ohio  and  seven  other  states  already 
mentioned.  And  we  are  probably  pursuing  the  better  plan  of  reform, 
because  at  least  38  of  our  counties  ought,  most  likely,  to  be  on  a  fee 
instead  of  a  salary  basis.  For  instance,  in  four-fifths  of  the  salary 
counties  the  aggregate  taxes  collected  for  state  and  county  purposes 
amounted  to  more  than  $75,000  in  1915.  Only  nine  of  these  counties 
collected  less  than  this  amount;  and  two  of  these  counties — Caswell 
and  Camden— with  aggregate  taxes  of  less  than  $50,000  each,  would 
probably  get  better  county  government  on  a  fee  basis.  Brunswick  and 
Jones  were  put  on  a  salary  basis  in  1913,  and  perhaps  wisely  returned 
to  a  fee  basis  in  1915.  The  aggregate  tax  receipts  in  both  counties  are 
small— $58,000  in  the  first  in  1915,  and  $39,000  in  the  second. 

On  the  other  hand,  50  counties  in  1915  were  on  a  fee  basis  of  com- 
pensation for  county  officers.  They  lie  in  three  groups.  Twenty  of 
these  counties  were  in  the  Tidewater  country,  scattered  from  Brunswick 
to  Currituck,  10  were  in  a  compact  group  of  mid-state  counties  reach- 
ing from  Chatham  to  Scotland  and  westward  to  Cabarrus  and  Union, 
and  20  were  foothill  and  mountain  counties.  In  36  of  these  counties  the 
aggregate  taxes  from  all  sources  collected  for  state  and  county  pur- 
poses in  1915  were  less  than  $75,000  each.  The  total  was  more  in  only 
14  of  them.  And  it  is  safe  to  say  that  county  officials  in  these  14  coun- 
ties ought  to  be  on  the  salary  rather  than  on  the  fee  basis.  They  are 
Edgecombe,  Wilson,  Cabarrus,  Union,  Duplin,  Moore,  Haywood,  Anson, 
McDowell,  Chatham,  Stokes,  Onslow,  Stanly,  and  Martin.  That  is  to 
say,  all  county  officials  except  coroners  and  surveyors,  and  perhaps 
sheriffs,  who  might  best  remain  on  a  fee  or  commission  basis  in  these 
and  most  other  counties  of  the  state. 

So  far  in  North  Carolina,  counties  raising  more  than  $75,000  of  taxes 
have  gone  on  the  salary  basis  as  a  rule,  and  counties  raising  less  than 
that  amount  of  tax  revenues  have  remained  on  a  fee  basis,  or  have  re- 
turned to  a  fee  basis,  as  Brunswick  and  Jones.     In  other  words,  the 


In  Noeth  Carolina  73 

dividing  line  between  the  fee  and  salary  systems  seems  to  be  $75,000 
of  tax  receipts  of  all  sorts  collected  and  handled  for  state  and  county 
purposes.  If  the  total  is  greater  the  people  of  a  county  may  well  con- 
sider the  salary  basis;  if  less,  the  change  from  fees  to  salaries  is  a 
matter  of  doubtful  wisdom. 

Two  Matters  to  be  Considered 

Two  matters  to  be  considered  in  deciding  between  fees  and  salaries 
as  a  basis  of  compensation  for  county  offices  are  cost  and  efficiency. 
In  the  counties  that  collect  and  handle  small  totals  of  tax  revenues, 
the  fee  system  yields  small  compensation  for  county  officers  and  ill 
rewards  competent,  faithful  public  servants,  but  it  relieves  property 
owners  of  the  burden  of  courthouse  support.  The  pay  of  the  county 
officers  in  the  fee  counties  comes  from  the  particular  parties  directly 
served  or  most  concerned.  From  the  taxpayer's  standpoint,  the  fee 
plan  reduces  taxes  to  a  minimum.  It  is  a  cheap  plan  of  county  govern- 
ment, and  it  promotes  diligent,  faithful  service  because  it  puts  county 
officers  on  their  mettle.  What  they  get  they  must  work  for  with  maxi- 
mum accommodatingness.  If  they  don't  work,  or  if  they  are  ill-man- 
nered and  unobliging,  they  get  small  rewards  or  lose  their  jobs  in  the 
next  election.  On  the  other  hand  the  meagre,  precarious  incomes  of 
the  offices  in  these  counties  do  not  attract  men  of  ample  qualifications. 
However,  on  the  whole,  the  men  that  fill  the  four  principal  offices  in 
the  fee  counties  are  fairly  on  a  level  with  the  electorates  they  represent. 
The  risk  in  the  fee  counties  is  cheap-John  government  by  cheap-scale 
men. 

In  36  counties  of  the  state  the  office-holders  now  on  a  fee  basis  would 
most  likely  favor  the  salary  plan,  while  the  taxpayers  would  most  likely 
oppose  the  change  because  it  would  increase  the  tax  burden,  and  remove 
a  direct  incentive  to  diligent  service.  Moreover,  the  salary  plan  would 
tempt  office-holders  to  be  careless  in  collecting  customary  fees  and  turn- 
ing them  over  to  the  county  treasury.  Or  it  would  put  them  into  a  posi- 
tion where  they  could  dispense  with  the  collection  of  fees  altogether  in 
favoring  their  friends  or  in  dispensing  party  favors — all  without  hurt 
to  their  guaranteed  office  incomes. 

Small  Compensation  in  Fee  Counties 

In  36  of  the  counties  on  a  fee  basis  in  North  Carolina  (counties  with 
aggregate  taxes  less  than  $75,000  each)  the  fees  and  commissions  are 
relatively  small  in  volume,  being  largest  in  the  office  of  sheriff  and 
treasurer.  Undoubtedly  the  sheriffs  in  these  counties  earn  all  the  com- 
pensation they  receive  In  fees  and  commissions,  and  they  must  be 
fervent  and  diligent  in  business  serving  the  county  or  the  net  returns 
of  their  offices  fail  to  be  a  living  wage. 


74  County  Government 

And  the  same  thing  is  true  of  all  other  offices,  unless  it  be  the  county 
treasurers,  who  are  likely  to  be  overpaid  and  under-worked.  This  is  so 
clearly  evident  that  18  of  the  50  counties  that  remain  on  the  fee  basis 
in  North  Carolina  have  abolished  the  office  of  treasurer  and  turned 
over  the  business  to  banks  or  sheriffs,  usually  banks.  These  18 
counties  are  Avery,  Brunswick,  Chatham,  Chowan,  Clay,  Duplin,  Edge- 
combe, Gates,  Graham,  Jones,  Lee,  Mitchell,  Perquimans,  Swain,  Union, 
Washington,  Wilson,  and  Yancey. 

I  may  say  in  passing  that,  all  told,  41  counties  up  to  1915  had  abol- 
ished the  office  of  treasurer,  while  12  more  had  secured  the  legislative 
right  to  abolish  it.  Prof.  A.  C.  Mcintosh  of  the  University  Law  School 
reminds  me  that  section  1275  of  the  Revisal  authorizes  the  justices  of 
the  peace  in  any  county  to  abolish  or  restore  the  office  of  county  treas- 
urer. That  surprises  me,  and  I  think  it  will  surprise  the  general  public 
in  North  Carolina. 

The  treasurer  in  ten  of  the  fee  counties  whose  total  tax  revenues  in 
1915  ranged  from  $79,000  to  $135,000  are  over-paid  and  under-worked, 
unless  the  county  commissioners  have  greatly  reduced  the  rates  for  re- 
ceiving and  disbursing  school  moneys  and  other  county  funds.  These 
10  counties  are  Anson,  Cabarrus,  Chatham,  Haywood,  Martin,  McDowell, 
Moore,  and  Onslow. 

Expense  and  Efficiency  in  Salary  Counties 

But  expense  and  efficiency  are  also  problems  in  the  50  counties  that 
are  now  on  a  salary  basis;  and  they  are  problems  that  ought  to  chal- 
lenge the  attention  of  intelligent  citizens.  The  change  from  fees  to 
salaries  was  made  upon  the  assumption  (1)  that  the  fee  and  commis- 
sion incomes  of  the  four  principal  offices— the  sheriff,  the  treasurer,  the 
clerk,  and  the  register — were  more  than  a  fair  compensation,  under  the 
old  plan,  for  the  services  rendered;  (2)  that  these  officers  could  be  put 
upon  reasonable  stated  salaries,  the  legal  fees  collected  by  them  as 
before,  and  turned  into  the  county  treasuries  to  offset  their  salaries; 
(3)  that  all  salaries  could  be  paid  out  of  these  county  fee  funds;  (4) 
that  considerable  balances  would  be  left  over  to  apply  to  roads,  schools, 
interest  on  bonds,  sinking  funds,  jail  expenses,  and  the  like;  and  (5) 
that  in  this  way  the  benefits  of  county  government  would  be  increased 
without  adding  to  the  tax  burden. 

In  general  it  may  be  said  (1)  that  compensations  in  our  50  salary 
counties  are  small— too  small  to  secure,  reward,  and  retain  men  of  the 
highest  competency  in  our  county  offices,  (2)  that  there  is  manifest 
laxity  in  collecting  customary  office  fees  and  turning  them  into  the 
county  treasury.  As  a  consequence  the  county  fee  funds  make  small 
totals  in  the  salary  counties,  and  year  by  year  they  grow  smaller.  Thus 
in  1916  the  fee  total  in  Buncombe,  a  salary  county,  was  only  $14,740. 
while  in  Swain,  a  fee  county,  it  was  $8,100;  which  is  strange  consider- 


In  Noeth  Carolina  75 

ing  the  fact  that  the  aggregate  tax  revenues  of  Buncombe  were  nearly 
six  times  those  of  Swain.  Buncombe  and  Guilford  are  fairly  on  a  parity 
in  courthouse  business,  but  the  fee  fund  in  Guilford  in  1916  was  $43,171 
against  $14,740  in  Buncombe.  The  fee  fund  in  Bertie  was  nearly  as 
great  as  that  of  Buncombe — $12,420  against  $14,740.  And  so  on  and  on. 
Discrepancies  and  laxities  abound  in  the  fee  funds  of  the  salary  coun- 
ties; and  manifestly  some  of  these  counties  have  increased  the  cost 
while  lowering  the  efficiencies  of  county  government  under  the  salary 
plan. 

The  fees  of  the  various  offices,  if  faithfully  collected,  might  easily 
pay  the  salaries  of  all  the  courthouse  officers  in  48  of  our  salary  counties 
and  in  10  more  counties  that  are  not  yet  on  a  salary  basis.  These  fee 
funds  might  not  only  pay  all  salaries  but  yield  surpluses  to  apply  to 
schools,  roads,  and  other  county  purposes.  The  fee  funds  in  half  a 
dozen  counties  are  doing  all  these  things;  and  it  could  be  so  in  58 
counties  of  the  state  if — and  here  comes  the  rub,  human  nature  con- 
sidered— if  a  practical  plan  were  devised  whereby  the  fees,  commissions, 
and  all  extra  compensations  other  than  stated  salaries,  collected  or 
subject  to  collection,  could  be  charged  against  all  county  officers  and  a 
statement  of  the  same  rendered  in  accurate  detail  annually. 

Here  we  are  squarely  up  against  the  vital  subject  of  competent  audit- 
ing of  the  business  details  of  county  offices. 

Anditiiig  Connty  Accounts 

When  the  counties  of  North  Carolina  began  to  change  from  the  fee 
to  the  salary  basis  of  compensating  county  officers  it  became  more  or 
less  evident  that  an  important  matter  was  the  county  fee  fund  out  of 
which  to  pay  county  salaries  without  increasing  the  tax  burden. 

As  a  result  forty-one  counties  up  to  1915  provided  auditors  or  made 
other  auditing  arrangements.  Thirty  have  established  permanent  audi- 
tors on  stated  salaries.  Seven  employ  accountants  or  special  auditors 
at  certain  intervals.  Five  have  created  finance  committees.  One  has 
charged  the  county  treasurer  with  auditing  work;  and  it  is  the  duty 
of  these  auditors  to  overhaul  the  fees  and  commissions  of  individual 
officers  as  well  as  the  public  funds  collected  for  general  purposes.  The 
counties  with  auditing  arrangements  in  1915  were  Alamance,  Ashe, 
Beaufort,  Bertie,  Buncombe,  Caswell,  Catawba,  Cherokee,  Cleveland, 
Columbus,  Craven,  Cumberland,  Davidson,  Durham,  Edgecombe,  For- 
syth, Gaston,  Granville,  Guilford,  Harnett,  Henderson,  Johnston,  Lenoir, 
Madison,  Mecklenburg,  Mitchell,  Nash,  New  Hanover,  Pasquotank,  Per- 
son, Pitt,  Randolph,  Richmond,  Robeson,  Rowan,  Sampson,  Surry, 
Vance,  Wake,  Warren,  Wayne,  and  Wilkes. 


76  County  Goveenment 

Where  the  Salary  Plan  Falls 

I  say  the  necessity  of  auditing  county  accounts,  Including  both  gen- 
eral public  funds  and  the  fees  and  commissions  of  individual  oflScers, 
became  more  or  less  evident.  The  expression  seems  justified  by  the 
fact  that  after  diligent  inquiry  during  the  last  two  months  we  have  been 
able  to  ascertain  the  fee  and  commission  totals  of  only  12  counties. 
And  so  with  reason.  Auditing  general  public  funds  is  difficult  enough 
in  the  counties  of  North  Carolina,  but  checking  and  accounting  for 
fees  and  commissions  collected  or  subject  to  collection  is  well-nigh 
impossible  in  the  present  order  of  county  affairs  in  this  state.  Thirteen 
of  our  salary  counties  in  1915  did  not  even  try  to  do  it,  for  all  its  im- 
portance. They  had  no  auditors  and  no  auditing  arrangements,  while 
only  7  of  the  remaining  37  salary  counties  were  able  or  willing  to  fur- 
nish the  information  when  called  upon. 

Without  effective  attention  to  the  fee  funds  in  the  salary  counties, 
these  funds  will  eventually  dwindle  and  disappear;  and  the  salary  plan 
will  result  or  has  already  resulted  in  increasing  the  cost  while  decreas- 
ing the  efficiencies  of  government  in  forty-odd  counties  of  the  state. 
The  salary  plan  is  failing  to  work  to  the  best  advantage  and  it  is  failing 
because  13  of  the  salary  counties  have  no  auditors  or  auditing  arrange- 
ments, and  because  of  insufficient  or  incompetent  auditing  in  30  coun- 
ties. The  salary  plan  is  achieving  its  best  results  in  fewer  than  half 
a  dozen  counties,  so  far  as  we  have  been  able  to  learn — Guilford,  Wake, 
New  Hanover,  and  Forsyth  leading  in  the  order  named. 

Summary  and  Conclusions 

1.  The  fee  system  of  compensating  county  officers  was  in  vogue  in 
fifty  counties  of  the  state  in  1915,  and  fifty  counties  were  on  a  salary 
basis. 

2.  The  line  of  division  between  fee  and  salary  counties  seems  to  be 
$75,000  of  aggregate  taxes  of  all  sorts  collected  and  handled  for  state 
and  county  purposes.  All  but  two  of  the  salary  counties  are  above  this 
level.  Thirty-six  of  the  fee  counties  are  below;  14  are  above  it,  and 
probably  ought  to  change  to  the  salary  plan. 

3.  The  fee  plan  of  compensation  is  best  under  primitive  conditions — 
that  is,  where  populations  are  sparse,  wealth  small,  and  courthouse 
business  meagre  and  occasional.  The  plan  is  cheap.  It  lightens  the 
tax  burden.  It  provides  incentive  to  official  activity  and  accommodating- 
ness.  On  the  other  hand  the  compensations  are  small.  They  attract 
second-rate  men  into  the  county  offices.  The  duties  of  county  officers 
do  not  keep  them  steadily  busy  as  other  business  men  are  busy,  and  the 
courthouse  becomes  a  rendezvous  for  loafing,  idle  gossip,  and  political 
wire-pulling. 


In  Noeth  Carolina  77 

3.  The  salary  plan  is  best  in  counties  where  fees  and  commissions 
rise  into  totals  that  make  excessive  compensation  for  services  ren- 
dered— as,  for  instance,  in  New  Hanover,  where  a  few  years  ago  the 
treasurer  was  getting  $5,000  a  year,  or  about  as  much  as  the  governor 
of  the  state  was  receiving. 

4.  The  salary  plan  with  its  guaranteed  salaries  removes  a  certain 
incentive  to  diligence  and  faithfulness  to  duties.  Thus  the  sheriff  in 
a  salary  county  is  tempted  to  be  less  concerned  than  in  fee  counties 
about  collecting  all  the  taxes  due.  A  correspondent  from  a  salary 
county  writes,  "Our  clerk  and  register  are  supposed  to  give  all  their 
time  to  their  work;  and  yet  one  goes  to  their  offices  and  frequently  they 
are  not  to  be  found;  one  calls  them  over  the  phone  and  cannot  get  in 
communication  with  them."  Such  are  the  comments  that  come  up  from 
the  salary  counties. 

5.  If  customary  fees  and  commissions  are  faithfully  collected  and 
honestly  turned  over  to  the  fee  funds  of  the  county  treasuries,  the 
salary  plan  lays  no  burden  on  the  taxpayers  while  increasing  the  benefits 
of  government,  say  in  schools  and  roads.  The  county  office  fees  and 
commissions  in  North  Carolina  amount  to  something  like  one  and  a 
quarter  million  dollars  a  year,  if  they  are  collected  according  to  law.  The 
total  is  large  enough  to  pay  all  salaries  in  at  least  58  counties  of  the 
state,  and  leave  large  balances  to  apply  to  schools,  roads,  jail  expenses, 
interest,  and  sinking  funds.  These  large  surpluses  are  being  wasted 
in  most  of  the  salary  counties. 

6.  Under  the  salary  plan  the  incentive  to  collect  customary  fees  and 
commissions  and  to  turn  them  over  to  county  treasuries  is  removed; 
and  consequently  the  fee  funds  out  of  which  salaries  are  supposed  to 
be  paid  are  small  and  steadily  tend  to  be  smaller  year  by  year  in  almost 
all  the  salary  counties.  The  result  is  that  the  salary  plan  as  it  operates 
at  present  in  most  counties  adds  to  the  burdens  of  the  general  taxpayer, 
and  robs  him  of  the  surpluses  accruing  under  good  management. 

7.  Good  management  means,  first  of  all,  good  bookkeeping  in  every 
county  office,  and  the  competent,  courageous  auditing  of  county  ac- 
counts. Thirteen  salary  counties  have  no  auditors  and  no  auditing 
arrangements.  In  thirty  other  salary  counties  the  auditing  is  mani- 
festly insufficient  or  incompetent.  In  these  43  salary  counties  the  fee 
funds  are  utterly  neglected,  or  are  ridiculously  small.  If  the  salaries 
of  salaried  officers  do  not  come  out  of  the  fee  funds  of  these  counties, 
they  must  come  out  of  the  pockets  of  the  taxpayers;  wherefore  the 
interest  that  taxpayers  have  or  ought  to  have  in  the  auditing  of  county 
accounts  and  in  fee  and  salary  funds. 

8.  Locally  elected  or  appointed  auditors  or  auditing  committees  are 
not  usually  conditioned  for  any  courageous  overhauling  of  county 
finances.  They  are  embarrassed  by  local  ties  and  attachments.  Com- 
petent county  auditors  permanently  employed   or   certified   public  ac- 


78  County  Government 

countants  employed  at  stated  intervals  are  necessary  in  every  county 
to  instruct,  advise,  and  counsel  courthouse  officers  in  the  business  details 
of  their  offices.  County  officers  are  usually  honest,  but  also  they  are 
usually  untrained  in  business  affairs. 

9.  What  is  needed  in  addition  is  (1)  a  state-wide  plan  of  uniform 
county  accounting,  covering  the  collection  and  disposal  of  general  public 
funds  as  well  as  fees  and  commissions  collected  and  subject  to  collection, 
and  (2)  a  state  auditing  officer  with  a  staff  of  competent  field  agents 
busy  the  year  around  advising,  counseling,  and  checking  county  officers 
in  the  handling  of  public  funds.  Three  states  are  already  operating 
successfully  under  such  a  plan,  and  17  more  or  less  successfully. 

The  three  states  referred  to  are  Indiana,  Ohio,  and  Wyoming.  The 
seventeen  are  Massachusetts,  Kansas,  Georgia,  Iowa,  Nevada,  Florida, 
Tennessee,  New  Mexico,  Arizona,  Colorado,  Oklahoma,  Washington, 
Minnesota,  West  Virginia,  Louisiana,  California,  and  Michigan. — Gil- 
bertson's  The  County,  p.  122. 

North  Carolina  has  such  a  system  of  expert  field  agents  examining  the 
business  management  of  our  banks.  The  examination  of  county  office 
finances  could  be  modeled  on  our  bank  examiner  plan. 

The  experience  of  other  states  demonstrates  that  state-wide  auditing 
of  county  accounts  saves  instead  of  wastes  money.  For  instance,  be- 
tween 1903  and  1912  the  Ohio  Bureau  of  Public  Accounts  disclosed  the 
improper  disposal  of  $3,183,273  of  public  money  in  county  offices,  due 
to  ignorance  or  defiance  of  the  law,  and  during  these  ten  years  secured 
the  return  of  $858,460  of  this  money  to  the  county  treasuries. 


Sources  of  Information: 

Counties  on  the  Salary  Basis  of  Compensating  County  Offices,  Offi- 
cers, and  Salaries;  abstracted  from  the  Public-Local  Laws  of  N.  C. — 
Prof.  A.  C.  Mcintosh,  University  of  N.  C.  Law  School. 

N.  C.  Counties  that  have  Abolished  the  Office  of  Treasurer,  1905- 
1915. — A.  B.  Andrews,  Jr.,  Raleigh. 

North  Carolina  Club  Correspondents  in  96  counties. 

State  Tax  Commission  of  N.  C,  1916  Report. 

The  County — H.  S.  Gilbertson. 

Local  Government  in  Counties,  Towns,  and  Cities. — John  A.  Fairlie. 


In  North  Carolina  79 

County  Office  Information 

A.  C.  McIntosh,  University  Law  School 

50  Counties  With  Offices  on  a  Fee  Basis  in  1915 

Alexander,  Alleghany,  Anson,  Ashe,  Avery,  Bladen,  Brunswick,  Ca- 
barrus, Caldwell,  Carteret,  Chatham,  Chowan,  Clay,  Currituck,  Dare, 
Davie,  Duplin,  Edgecombe,  Gates,  Graham,  Greene,  Haywood,  Hertford. 
Hoke,  Hyde,  Jackson,  Jones,  Lee,  Macon,  Martin,  McDowell,  Mitchell, 
Montgomery,  Moore,  Onslow,  Pamlico,  Perquimans,  Polk,  Scotland, 
Stanly,  Stokes,  Swain,  Transylvania,  Tyrrell,  Union,  Washington, 
"Watauga,  Wilson,  Yadkin,  Yancey. 

60  Counties  With  Offices  on  a  Salary  Basis,  1915 

Alamance,  Beaufort,  Bertie,  Buncombe,  Burke,  Camden,  Caswell, 
Catawba,  Cherokee,  Cleveland,  Columbus,  Craven,  Cumberland,  David- 
son, Durham,  Forsyth,  Franklin,  Gaston,  Granville,  Guilford,  Halifax, 
Harnett,  Henderson,  Iredell,  Johnston,  Lenoir,  Lincoln,  Madison,  Meck- 
lenburg, Nash,  New  Hanover,  Northampton,  Orange,  Pasquotank,  Pen- 
der, Person,  Pitt,  Randolph,  Richmond,  Robeson,  Rockingham,  Rowan, 
Rutherford,  Sampson,  Surry,  Vance,  Wake,  Warren,  Wayne,  Wilkes. 

41  Counties  Abolishing  the  Office  of  Treasurer,  1915 

Avery,  Bertie,  Brunswick,  Burke,  Camden,  Catawba,  Cherokee,  Cho- 
wan, Clay,  Cleveland,  Columbus,  Davidson,  Duplin,  Edgecombe,  Forsyth. 
Gates,  Graham,  Granville,  Harnett,  Johnston,  Jones,  Lee,  Lincoln,  Madi- 
son, Mitchell,  New  Hanover,  Northampton,  Pasquotank,  Perquimans, 
Person,  Richmond,  Robeson,  Sampson,  Swain,  Union,  Vance,  Warren, 
Washington,  Wayne,  Wilson,  Yancey. 

Counties  having  the  legislative  right  to  abolish  the  office  of  treasurer 
(13):  Anson,  Bladen,  Carteret,  Chatham,  Greene,  Hoke,  Hyde,  Martin, 
Montgomery,  Moore,  Polk,  Rowan,  Stanly. 

42  Counties  With  Auditors  or  Auditing  Arrangements,  1915 

Alamance,  Ashe,  Beaufort,  Bertie,  Buncombe,  Caswell,  Catawba, 
Cherokee,  Cleveland,  Columbus,  Craven,  Cumberland,  Davidson,  Dur- 
ham, Edgecombe,  Forsyth,  Gaston,  Granville,  Guilford,  Harnett,  Hen- 
derson, Johnston,  Lenoir,  Madison,  Mecklenburg,  Mitchell,  Nash,  New 
Hanover,  Pasquotank,  Person.  Pitt.  Randolph,  Richmond,  Robeson,  Ro- 
wan, Sampson,  Surry,  Vance,  Wake,  Warren,  Wayne,  Wilkes. 


Based  on  the  Public  Local  Laws  of  North  Carolina,  1905-1915. 


80  County  Government 


CHAPTER  IX 
County  Finances  in  North  Carolina 

M.  S.  WiLL-UJD,  Formerly  Chairman  New  Hanover  Board  of  County 
Com,m,issioners 

I  can  conceive  of  no  greater  service  that  could  be  rendered  the  State 
than  that  which  has  this  year  been  undertaken  by  the  North  Carolina 
Club  at  the  University. 

These  studies  and  investigations  of  county  affairs  can  be  of  value  only 
vphen  undertaken  in  some  such  way  as  this  and  with  some  one  back 
of  the  effort  who  will  continue  to  inject  into  it  without  the  hope  of  re- 
ward, and  through  sheer  patriotism  or  love  of  investigation,  the  energy 
and  the  spirit  which  such  work  demands. 

Lack  of  Information  About  County  Affairs 

1.  Some  years  ago  when  I  was  first  connected  with  the  government  of 
my  own  county,  I  became  very  much  Interested  to  know  whether  we 
were  doing  better  or  worse  in  the  management  of  our  road  finances; 
in  the  cost  of  maintaining  our  county  prisoners;  in  the  maintenance  of 
our  county  home,  and  numerous  other  county  institutions  than  were 
Guilford  and  Forsyth  and  Wake  and  Mecklenburg,  and  other  counties.  I 
recollect  that  the  question  of  an  appropriation  to  our  hospital  came  be- 
fore our  board  of  commissioners.  I  was  anxious  to  find  out  what  was 
being  done  in  other  counties  in  the  way  of  appropriations  for  hospitals 
and  I  selected  twelve  or  fifteen  counties  and  wrote  letters  to  the  county 
ofiicials  asking  for  information.  In  answer  to  probably  two  of  my 
letters  I  received  intelligent  and  satisfactory  replies.  Probably  a  half 
dozen  more  gave  me  some  figures  which  were  of  very  little  use  for  pur- 
poses of  comparison,  and  to  my  other  letters  I  received  no  replies, 
although  the  first  request  was  followed  up  by  a  second  and  a  third 
letter.  I  then  began  an  effort  to  secure  copies  of  the  newspapers  in 
which  had  been  printed  the  financial  statements  of  the  counties.  I 
succeeded  in  securing  probably  ten  statements  and,  after  a  fruitless 
attempt  to  coordinate  these  statements  so  I  might  secure  information 
which  would  enable  me  to  know  whether  in  New  Hanover  County  we 
were  doing  better  or  worse  than  our  neighbors,  I  became  hopelessly  lost 
In  a  jungle  of  statistics  and  reluctantly  gave  it  up  as  useless,  and 
turned  my  attention  to  doing  what  I  could  to  place  our  own  county 
affairs  in  such  condition  that  they  could  be  understood  by  those  of  our 
taxpayers  who  might  be  inquisitive  enough  to  want  to  know  how  the 
money  was  handled  which  they  paid  for  taxes. 


In  North  Cakolina  81 

Poor  Business  Methods  In  Connty  Offices 

2.  In  January,  1911,  there  was  published  in  the  daily  papers  of  Wil- 
mington, occupying  sixteen  columns  of  advertising  space,  a  statement 
of  the  finances  of  New  Hanover  County,  which  I  have  no  doubt  complied 
strictly  with  all  legal  requirements.  The  greater  part  of  the  space  was 
occupied  by  a  numerical  list  of  the  vouchers  issued  by  the  treasurer 
for  the  preceding  twelve  months,  the  entire  list  for  the  year  being  thus 
published  at  one  time.  This,  of  course,  was  useless  so  far  as  it  gave 
the  public  useful  information,  but  it  furnished  valuable  patronage  for 
the  leading  party  paper  in  the  county.  This  list  of  vouchers  was  fol- 
lowed by  statements  of  the  separate  funds  handled  by  the  treasurer,  on 
the  debit  side  of  which  would  be  the  entry  "By  taxes  received  from 

sheriff  $ ,"  and  on  the  credit  side  of  which  would  be  the  entry 

"To  warrants  paid  and  treasurer's  commissions  $ " 

These  statements  furnished  about  the  same  information  as  that  con- 
tained in  the  cash  account  of  a  certain  housewife  who  was  given  a  neat 
little  book  by  her  husband  and  enjoined  to  enter  on  one  side  the 
amount  of  money  received  for  household  expenses  and  on  the  other,  or 
credit  side,  the  sums  paid  out.  At  the  end  of  the  week  when  she  came 
to  exhibit  her  accounts  to  her  husband  she  was  delighted  to  tell  him 
they  balanced  to  a  cent,  and,  upon  examination,  there  was  found  entered 
on  the  debit  side  the  amount  received  and  on  the  credit  side  the  concise 
entry  "spent  it  all." 

Having  become  interested  in  county  finances,  and  being  of  an  in- 
quisitive mind,  I  addressed  a  short  communication  to  the  treasurer 
asking  him  to  state  publicly  the  total  amount  of  his  compensation  re- 
ceived during  the  previous  year  for  handling  the  funds  of  the  county. 
The  treasurer  seemed  averse  to  giving  the  public  this  information,  but 
referred  anyone  who  wanted  to  know  more  to  his  books.  After  making 
a  vain  effort  to  secure  the  information  from  the  Board  of  County  Com- 
missioners, I  was  forced  to  make  some  investigation  myself,  the  re- 
sult of  which  developed  the  fact  that  the  treasurer  was  receiving  be- 
tween four  and  five  thousand  dollars  annually.  Not  a  cent  was  taken 
illegally  and  I  have  not  the  slightest  doubt  but  that  the  work  per- 
formed by  the  treasurer  was  done  as  correctly  as  it  could  have  been 
done  by  anyone.  The  banks,  however,  which  received  the  deposits 
were  doing,  as  is  now  the  case  in  a  number  of  counties,  the  greater 
part  of  the  labor  of  handling  the  county's  money. 

The  chagrin  and  astonishment  with  which  the  public  received  the 
developments  brought  out  by  these  inquiries  was  sufficient  to  cause  the 
defeat  in  the  impending  election  of  the  treasurer  and  the  board  of 
commissioners,  who  for  years  had  been  invincible,  and  the  substitu- 
tion of  the  salary  system  of  remuneration  of  county  officers  for  the 
old-fashioned  and  out-of-date  fee  system. 
6 


82  County  Government 

It  was  thus  I  first  commenced  to  take  an  interest  in  county  affairs 
and  that  interest  has  continued,  although  for  some  time  I  have  not  been 
actively  connected  with  county  administration. 

Defects  In  Our  County  Finances 

3.  If  I  should  attempt  to  speak  to  you  on  every  phase  of  county 
finances  I  could  not  hope  that  what  I  say  would  be  of  very  much  value. 
It  would  only  be  possible  to  refer  very  superficially  to  the  principal 
divisions  of  county  finances,  and,  if  there  is  any  good  at  all  to  be  de- 
rived from  what  I  can  say,  it  must  be  drawn  from  my  experience  with 
the  details  as  I  have  seen  them  while  connected  with  county  govern- 
ment. While  I  may  be  able  to  point  out  what  may  be  termed  defects 
in  our  county  financial  system  it  must  not  be  inferred  that  nothing 
better  can  be  done  without  the  enactment  of  new  laws.  I  am  fully 
persuaded  that  our  present  county  financial  system,  with  all  its  failure 
to  accomplish  what  is  desired,  is  not  so  terribly  bad  if  the  laws  as  they 
exist  were  enforced. 

Lawless  Tax  Collecting 

4.  A  recent  report  from  the  State  Comptroller's  office  of  New  York 
contains  the  following:  "Examination  of  the  accounts  and  fiscal  affairs 
of  the  several  municipalities  in  the  state  made  by  this  department 
.  .  .  shows  that  in  not  a  single  county  have  taxes  been  levied  and 
collected  in  the  exact  manner  prescribed  by  law."  I  feel  sure  this  is 
true  to  as  great  extent  in  North  Carolina  as  in  New  York. 

We  all  know  the  chief  source  of  the  county's  income  is  the  general 
property  tax.  In  order  that  this  tax  shall  be  collected  the  law  re- 
quires all  owners  of  property  on  certain  days  to  make  a  list  of  their 
taxables  and  return  this  list  properly  certified  to  the  list  taker.  The 
law  requires  all  property  to  be  listed  for  taxation  at  its  true  market 
value.  This  requirement  can  not  be  made  clearer  by  the  use  of  any 
other  words,  but  it  is  not  enforced  in  any  community  in  the  state, 
and  changing  the  law  or  adding  to  it  will  not  accomplish  the  result 
desired  until  the  one  essential  thing  is  done,  and  that  is  for  proper 
persons  with  full  responsibility  to  be  elected  to  fill  the  ofl^ices. 

Although  the  subject  has  almost  been  worn  threadbare,  and  although 
any  reference  to  the  methods  of  valuing  property  for  taxation  is  apt 
to  cause  unlimited  and  wide  discussion  and  is  not  easily  disposed  of,  I 
believe  the  suggestion  I  am  about  to  make  will  be  valuable,  no  matter 
what  system  of  levying  taxes  is  adopted.  Until  some  radical  change 
is  made  in  present  methods  of  assessing  real  estate  for  taxation,  I 
would  urge  all  county  officials  to  require  the  assessors  to  have  some 
definite  rule  to  work  by  when  making  their  valuations.  It  might  be 
well  to  require  by  law  that  this  be  done,  but  a  suggestion  to  an 
assessor  should  be  sufficient. 


In  Nokth  Carolina  88 

Taxablcs  According  to  Standards 

5.  What  I  mean  by  a  definite  rule  is  that  in  a  city  or  town  a  certain 
unit  of  value  should  be  adopted,  that  unit  being  a  lot  a  fixed  number 
of  feet  deep  and  a  fixed  number  of  feet  front.  The  value  of  this  unit 
being  arrived  at  by  recent  sales  in  the  most  valuable  part  of  a  city, 
and  the  rate  per  foot  both  for  frontage  and  for  depth  being  thus  fixed, 
it  should  be  applied  without  variation  to  all  other  lots,  the  value  of 
the  vacant  lot  being  first  decided  and  then  the  value  of  the  buildings 
added,  but  a  record  of  the  value  of  each  being  kept  separate.  As  the 
assessor's  work  progresses  to  blocks  adjoining  and  distant  from  the 
block  where  the  unit  of  value  has  been  selected,  the  value  of  the  unit 
should  be  decreased. 

But  the  main  idea  is  to  have  a  uniform  standard  of  value  which  will 
be  applied  impartially  to  all  similar  property,  whether  the  valuation  is 
to  be  25  per  cent,  50  per  cent,  or  the  entire  and  true  value — the  value 
of  land  and  the  buildings  thereon  being  kept  separate.  This  same 
process  could  be  used  in  the  country. 

At  the  last  general  tax  listing  in  New  Hanover  County  we  had  a 
board  of  assessors  which  adopted  this  plan,  and  the  changes  made  in 
valuations  in  certain  parts  of  the  city  were  startling.  A  tremendous 
storm  of  protest  was  raised  by  a  large  number  of  property  owners;  a 
committee  was  even  appointed  by  the  Chamber  of  Commerce,  at  the 
request  of  these  property  owners,  to  make  an  investigation,  but  the 
result  of  the  whole  matter  was  that  the  valuations  of  the  assessors 
stood  in  nearly  every  case,  and  the  reason  for  it  was  that  they  could 
explain  precisely  how  any  valuation  was  arrived  at  and  no  one  could 
dispute  their  contention  that  equity  required  the  application  of  the 
same  rule  to  every  property  owner — unless  there  were  exceptional  cir- 
cumstances calling  for  some  variation. 

Unpaid  Taxes 

6.  Another  great  and  growing  evil  is  the  large  amount  of  property 
which  every  year  is  not  listed  for  taxation  and  upon  which  tax  is  not 
paid.  Although  the  law  is  very  plain  and  positive  on  this;  although 
the  officials  give  daily  notice  and  warning  to  every  property  owner  of 
his  liability  to  heavy  penalty  for  failure  to  list;  although  notices  are 
posted  in  prominent  places  throughout  the  county  calling  every  one  to 
attend  to  this  duty,  there  is  never  a  year  passes  but  that  a  consid- 
erable number  of  property  owners  fall  to  list  their  taxes.  In  addition 
to  the  number  who  fail  altogether  to  list  their  property  there  are 
those  who  list  and  fail  to  pay. 

I  venture  to  say.  there  are  no  two  counties  in  the  state  where  these 
two  classes  are  treated  alike.    Up  to  a  few  years  ago  the  law  provided 


84  County  Government 

that  all  who  failed  to  list  their  taxes  should  be  charged  with  double 
tax.  When  I  became  connected  with  county  government  I  found  this 
law  to  be  practically  a  dead  letter,  and  our  board  of  commissioners,  be- 
ing convinced  the  penalty  was  too  great,  persuaded  our  Representative 
in  the  Legislature  to  secure  a  change  in  the  Revenue  Law  which  pro- 
vided for  a  penalty  of  25  per  cent.  For  those  who  list  and  do  not  pay 
there  is  no  plain  provision  in  the  law  and  the  commissioners  of  each 
county  seem  to  make  their  own  conditions.  Of  course  it  is  understood 
that  this  refers  only  to  the  listing  of  real  and  personal  property.  The 
failure  to  list  poll  tax  is  a  misdemeanor  and  makes  one  subject  to 
indictment  by  a  grand  jury  and  liable  to  penalty.  A  county  financial 
statement  which  would  accurately  and  clearly  set  forth  all  the  facts 
and  figures  bearing  on  unpaid  taxes,  would  be  an  anomaly,  but  such 
a  statement  would  be  of  the  greatest  value.  Every  statement  of  this 
sort,  as  a  matter  of  course,  should  be  uniform  in  every  county. 

I  do  not  know  how  it  may  be  in  a  majority  of  the  counties  in  the 
state,  but  in  my  own  county  the  next  step  in  the  collection  of  taxes  is 
the  most  vexatious  and  unsatisfactory  of  all.  On  a  certain  day  the 
sheriff  is  required  to  sell  all  property  upon  which  taxes  have  not  been 
paid.  The  law  here  also  seems  to  be  ample,  but  its  enforcement  is  a 
travesty.  The  law  provides  that  after  all  efforts  are  exhausted  to  col- 
lect tax  on  real  estate  out  of  the  taxpayer's  personal  property  then  the 
sheriff  shall  sell  such  portion  of  the  real  estate  as  may  be  necessary 
to  pay  the  tax  on  the  whole.  There  may  be  a  county  somewhere  in  our 
fair  land  where  a  diligent  effort  is  made  to  collect  this  tax  out  of  per- 
sonal property  but  I  do  not  believe  it.  It  would  cost  the  oflScial  his 
office  and  therefore  it  never  has  been  and  never  will  be  strictly  en- 
forced. 

The  fault  here  lies,  as  before,  not  so  much  with  the  law  as  with  its 
administration.  The  easiest  way  out  of  the  trouble  is  for  the  sheriff 
to  go  through  the  form  of  selling  the  property,  for,  although  he  thereby 
loses  his  commission,  he  profiteth  himself  by  the  salvation  of  his  job. 
I  have  never  yet  seen  a  county  balance  sheet  where  the  amount  of 
uncollected  taxes  due  the  county  has  been  accurately  shown.  Even  if 
the  amount  due  according  to  law  could  be  shown  accurately,  it  would 
be  of  very  little  value  in  a  balance  sheet  as  showing  the  assets  of  a 
county,  for  the  reason,  as  stated  before,  that  the  law  is  not  enforced 
uniformly  in  the  counties  and  it  would  be  impossible  to  tell  what 
proportion  of  the  whole  amount  would  be  actually  collected.  I  do  not 
believe  there  is  any  similarity  in  the  methods  employed  in  a  majority 
of  the  counties  in  handling  these  delinquent  taxpayers. 

In  my  own  county  (New  Hanover)  the  amount  uncollected  is  in- 
creasing with  great  regularity.  Last  year  the  amount  of  delinquent 
tax  on  property  sold  and  bought  by  the  county  was  |8,792.86,  and  the 


In  North  Carolina  85 

total  amount  due  the  county  on  property  which  stands  in  the  name 
of  the  county  is  approximately  $30,000,  and  is  increasing  each  year. 
I  cannot  point  out  the  trouble,  other  than  the  failure  to  levy  on  per- 
sonal property  or  find  a  bona  fide  purchaser  for  the  real  estate.  As 
the  property  is  regularly  advertised  for  sale,  the  sheriff  goes  through 
the  form  of  offering  it  to  the  highest  bidder,  but  no  one  offers  to  buy 
and  the  sheriff  is  forced  to  bid  the  property  off  for  the  county.  Event- 
ually the  property  may  be  sold  by  its  owner  and  then  there  may  be  a 
settlement  of  taxes,  always  with  an  abatement  of  a  great  part  of  the 
accrued  penalties;  but  this  is  a  very  unsatisfactory  method  of  collect- 
ing taxes,  and  is  a  distinct  Injustice  to  those  who  promptly  attend 
to  the  payment  of  their  amounts. 

I  have  in  mind  a  valuable  piece  of  property  in  the  city  of  Wilming- 
ton, a  comparatively  modern  dwelling  on  a  medium  sized  lot  worth 
probably  $10,000  or  $12,000,  which  has  not  been  listed  for  years.  The 
owner's  attention  is  called  to  the  matter  every  year,  personally  by 
the  tax  lister,  by  notice  through  the  mail,  and  by  advertisement  in  the 
daily  papers,  and  he  is  urged  to  list  his  property,  but  he  consistently 
neglects  to  do  so  and  the  taxes  accumulate  year  by  year.  It  it  were 
possible  for  the  county  to  take  possession  of  this  property  and  rent  it 
as  would  be  done  by  any  other  purchaser,  it  would  soon  result  in  the 
taxes  being  paid,  but  it  is  simply  bid  in  by  the  sheriff,  a  tax  deed  is 
made  to  the  county  and  the  process  repeated  year  after  year. 

The  law  dealing  with  delinquent  tax  payers  in  North  Carolina  is 
referred  to  by  a  writer  on  the  subject  as  "farcical  and  meaningless," 
and  he  goes  on  to  say  that  "it  is  not  the  strength  of  the  tax  law  and 
the  administrative  machinery,  but  either  the  innate  loyalty  of  the  citi- 
zens, or  their  inertia  and  ignorance,  or  their  dislike  of  litigation" 
that  makes  any  of  them  pay  their  taxes. 

A  uniform  method  of  making  up  a  balance  sheet  for  the  counties 
would  bring  out  these  differences  and  point  out  to  the  uninformed  the 
proper  methods  to  pursue  so  long  as  our  laws  stand  as  they  are  today, 
but  my  purpose  is  not  so  much  to  point  out  proposed  changes  in  the 
laws,  as  this  will  be  done  by  others,  but  to  suggest  how  to  act  under 
the  laws  as  they  exist  at  present. 

Maps  of  Real  Estate 

7.  If  you  will  pardon  a  digression  I  would  like  to  call  attention  to 
another  reason  for  failure  of  the  county  to  receive  taxes  on  all  the 
property  within  its  borders,  and  this  is  the  inaccurate  and  defective 
descriptions  of  country  property.  Although  It  would  involve  consid- 
erable expense  there  could  not  be  a  better  investment  for  any  county 
than  to  have  prepared  by  a  competent  engineer  a  full  and  accurate  map 
of  the  county,  showing  the  exact  dimensions  of  each  separate  piece  of 


86  County  Government 

property.  The  practical  working  out  of  this  would  not  be  difficult  as 
the  entire  surface  of  the  county  could  be  mapped  on  a  very  intelligible 
scale  and  bound  in  sections  in  loose  leaf  form,  somewhat  as  the  maps 
of  large  cities  are  now  prepared  for  the  use  of  fire  insurance  com- 
panies. Changes  in  ownership  should  be  marked  on  this  map  as  deeds 
are  recorded,  just  as  is  done  now  on  the  block  books  which  tax  officials 
are  obliged  to  keep  in  every  city  of  any  size.  With  a  reference  map 
of  this  sort  it  would  not  be  necessary  to  ask  an  owner  of  country 
property  how  many  acres  are  contained  in  his  tract  of  land.  Now  the 
description  calls  for  so  many  acres  "more  or  less,"  and  you  can  safely 
wager  when  it  comes  to  calculating  the  value  of  a  farm  at  so  many 
dollars  an  acre  it  is  generally  "less"  rather  than  "more." 

In  New  Hanover  County,  for  instance,  and  this  is  the  smallest  county 
in  the  state,  the  clerk  of  the  board  of  commissioners  estimates  that 
in  some  way  30,000  acres  of  land  are  not  listed  for  taxation.  In  other 
words  there  are  known  to  be  a  certain  number  of  acres  within  the 
boundaries  of  the  county,  but  the  number  of  acres  in  the  city  of  Wil- 
mington, together  with  the  number  in  the  separate  pieces  listed  in  the 
country,  is  30,000  acres  less  than  the  total  acreage.  This  discrepancy 
could  not  exist  if  the  county  possessed  an  accurate  map  showing  the 
holdings  of  each  property  owner.  Such  a  map  as  this  would  also  be 
invaluable  to  lawyers  when  drawing  deeds  and  when  searching  titles, 
and  to  real  estate  men  when  subdividing  property  for  sale. 

Costly  Duplication  in  City  Counties 

8.  After  the  tax  books  are  made  up  and  turned  over  to  the  sheriff 
the  next  step  is  the  collection  of  the  taxes.  In  New  Hanover  County 
four-fifths  of  the  values  of  the  entire  county  are  in  the  city  of  Wil- 
mington. There  are  other  counties  in  which  a  great  percentage  of  the 
valuations  are  in  a  city.  According  to  our  present  laws  to  collect  these 
taxes,  there  is  no  option  but  to  maintain  two  tax  collecting  offices,  one 
for  the  county  and  one  for  the  city,  just  across  the  street  from  each 
other,  with  a  full  corps  of  clerks  with  resulting  expenses.  The  force 
in  either  office  could  easily  do  the  work  for  both,  and  thousands  of 
dollars  saved. 

There  is  also  duplication  of  legal  services;  of  engineering  services; 
of  road  machinery;  of  officials  of  one  sort  or  another,  a  great  part  of 
which  could  be  saved  if  we  had  the  legal  power  to  consolidate  these 
activities.  But  this  matter  of  consolidation  is  somewhat  foreign  to 
my  subject,  and  is  one  which  calls  for  separate  treatment. 

The  Salary  vs.  The  Fee  System 

9.  In  most  counties  a  percentage  is  still  paid  for  the  collection  of 
taxes.     This  method  of  compensation  is  being  changed  graudally  by 


In  KTorth  Carolina  87 

each  Legislature,  and  county  after  county  is  abandoning  this  old  and 
antiquated  system  and  putting  all  their  county  oflScials  on  salaries  and 
requiring  all  fees  to  be  turned  into  the  county  treasury.  The  one  great 
evil  to  be  contended  with  after  the  salary  system  is  adopted  is  that 
the  member  of  the  Legislature  from  a  county  usually  feels  he  is  the 
person  to  fix  the  salaries  to  be  paid  and  in  a  great  many  cases  to 
create  the  offices  to  which  the  salaries  attach. 

A  few  years  ago  we  had  an  experience  which  I  have  no  doubt  has 
been  the  same  with  many  other  boards  of  commissioners.  Our  board 
desired  an  officer  whom  they  could  depend  upon  to  assist  in  enforcing 
certain  laws  which  were  being  flagrantly  violated.  We  requested  the 
appointment  of  a  special  person  as  a  deputy  sheriff  and  were  flatly  re- 
fused. At  the  last  session  of  the  Legislature,  in  opposition  to  the  de- 
sire of  the  board  of  commissioners,  over  their  protest,  and  without 
previous  public  notice,  the  salaries  of  six  of  the  county  offices  were 
changed  (raised  of  course),  a  new  and  needless  office  was  created,  the 
incumbent  named  and  his  salary  fixed. 

Some  day  when  there  is  a  more  equal  division  of  the  thinking  men 
of  the  community  between  the  dominant  political  parties,  the  one 
which  would  undertake  to  impose  upon  the  people  such  a  mockery  as 
this  and  stand  sponsor  for  it  would  have  its  candidates  in  the  next  elec- 
tion buried  under  an  avalanche  of  votes.  And  my  sincere  hope  is  that 
the  day  is  not  far  distant  when  the  thinking  men  of  the  state  will  be 
more  equally  divided  between  the  parties. 

County  Government  a  Headless  Affair 

10.  Most  persons  are  under  the  impression  that  the  board  of  com- 
missioners, with  its  chairman,  is  at  the  head  of  the  county  government. 
We  may  have  been  under  this  impression  at  one  time  in  our  county 
but  soon  found  out  our  error.  The  board  does  have  authority  to  say 
how  about  19  cents  of  the  entire  tax  levy  may  be  spent,  but  its  au- 
thority over  the  balance  of  the  levy,  over  any  county  official,  such  as 
the  sheriff,  clerk  of  the  court,  coroner,  constable,  county  judge  or 
recorder,  is  nil.  The  chairman  of  the  board  does  have  the  honor, 
however,  of  presiding  over  the  meetings  of  the  commissioners,  signing 
the  warrants  for  the  salaries  of  the  many  county  officials  (which  are 
fixed  in  Raleigh),  and  of  smiling  and  trying  to  look  pleasant  when 
complaints  are  made  about  bad  roads,  excessive  tax  assessments,  or 
the  delinquency  of  some  county  subordinate,  over  whom  neither  he  nor 
the  board  has  any  control.  No  wonder  Dr.  Fairlie,  Professor  of  Politi- 
cal Science  in  the  University  of  Illinois,  wrote  some  years  ago  of 
county  government  in  the  United  States,  "The  present  decentralized 
and  unorganized  administrative  machinery  of  county  government  pro- 
duces  inefficiency   and   waste   in    the   transaction    of   public    business. 


88  County  GovEENMETiTT 

Originating  in  a  vague  theory  of  local  self-government  at  a  time  when, 
under  frontier  conditions,  public  business  amounted  to  little,  it  has 
proved  entirely  inadequate  to  the  complex  social  and  industrial  prob- 
lems of  today." 

The  Annual  Balance  Sheet 

11.  While  I  have  been  appointed  to  say  something  about  an  annual 
balance  sheet  it  would  never  be  necessary  to  assign  such  a  subject  if 
certain  changes  were  made  in  our  form  of  county  government.  No 
one  can  imagine  officers  elected  on  a  short  ballot,  where  responsibility 
could  be  clearly  fixed  on  a  few  individuals,  so  managing  the  finances 
of  the  county  that  the  same  sound  business  principles  which  must  pre- 
vail in  any  successful  business  would  not  be  adopted  by  them.  There 
would  naturally  be  provided  an  annual  audit  of  all  county  finances 
by  a  competent  public  accountant;  there  would  be  an  annual  statement 
of  assets  and  liabilities  which  would  accurately  exhibit  the  condition 
of  the  county  showing  the  foundation  upon  which  the  credit  of  the 
county  was  based,  so  that  its  bonds  would  sell  for  the  highest  market 
price.  Unless  the  county  is  fortunate  enough  to  have  as  its  auditor 
or  treasurer  an  expert  accountant,  and  this  is  a  remote  possibility,  it 
should  employ  an  expert  who  is  familiar  with  public  accounting  and 
give  him  the  job  by  the  year  to  audit  all  the  county  offices. 

Preferably,  in  my  opinion,  this  accountant  should  be  from  some 
other  community.  He  would  prepare  and  see  properly  installed  a  sys- 
tem of  bookkeeping,  drawn  from  his  experience  in  other  similar  offices, 
which  would  simplify  all  office  work  and  reduce  the  clerical  work  to 
a  minimum.  He  would  prepare  annually,  if  the  treasurer  could  not 
do  it,  the  balance  sheet  which  would  clearly  show  the  following  facts: 

Under  the  head  of  assets  it  would  show  the  amount  of  cash  on  hand 
in  each  separate  fund;  it  would  show  the  value  of  the  necessary  invest- 
ments of  the  county,  such  as  the  courthouse,  the  county  home  and 
farm,  the  school  houses  and  grounds;  the  amount  of  taxes  due  by  the 
sheriff  and  also  the  total  amount  of  delinquent  taxes  due  by  individuals. 
It  would  also  show  the  amount  of  sinking  fund  set  aside  for  the  re- 
demption of  bond  issues.  On  the  other  side  of  the  balance  sheet  would 
be  given  full  information  in  regard  to  each  bond  issue,  showing  rate 
of  interest,  date  of  maturity,  and  amount  of  accrued  interest.  It 
should  also  show  any  amounts  due  for  money  borrowed  temporarily, 
or  floating  indebtedness  of  any  nature.  It  should  show  as  a  liability, 
separate  from  other  items,  what  part  of  a  refunded  debt  was  incurred 
for  improvements  long  ago  worn  out. 

A  few  years  ago  I  knew  of  a  county  in  which  no  record  was  made 
in  the  treasurer's  statements  of  warrants  issued  but  not  paid.  The 
only  permanent  record  was  when  the  warrants  were  paid,  and  it  was 
impossible  to  tell  at  any  time  the  total  amount  of  warrants  outstanding. 


In  North  Carolina  89 

A  similar  condition  to  this  would  be  for  an  individual  to  issue  checks 
Indiscriminately  and  make  no  entry  on  his  books  until  the  end  of  the 
month  when  the  bank  returned  him  the  checks  which  had  been  pre- 
sented to  it  for  payment.  I  am  afraid  this  method  is  still  in  force  in 
not  a  few  counties. 

State  Uniformity  in  County  Accounting 

12.  But  after  all  the  great  thing  to  be  desired  is  uniformity  in 
accounting  in  all  counties.  It  would  even  be  better  if  accounts  were 
not  so  perfectly  kept  if  we  could  secure  the  same  kind  of  accounts 
in  all  counties.     These  accounts  should,  of  course,  be  published. 

Improved  methods  would  come  naturally  as  a  result  of  comparisons 
which  would  be  instituted  by  taxpayers  and  public  organizations.  These 
accounts  and  statistics  should  be  in  such  form  that  comparisons  could 
be  made  not  only  as  to  time  but  also  as  to  units. 

It  is  well  to  compare  the  expenses  of  the  county  this  year  with  the 
expenses  last  year,  but  it  is  much  better  to  be  able  to  compare  the 
cost  per  mile  of  a  16  feet  wide  macadam  or  concrete  road  in  one 
county  with  the  cost  of  a  similar  road  in  another  county.  It  is  essen- 
tial that  we  should  know  the  amount  expended  on  schools  this  year  as 
compared  with  last  year,  but  it  is  just  as  valuable  and  more  interesting 
to  know  how  much  per  capita  for  children  who  attended  school  was 
expended  for  education.  We  want  to  know  just  how  much  each  county 
is  expending  each  year  for  prisoners,  or  for  the  care  of  the  county 
home,  but  we  also  want  to  know  how  much  per  day  per  prisoner  it  is 
costing  us,  and  the  same  information  for  inmates  of  the  home.  We 
should  have  standard  units  of  comparison  for  every  service  rendered 
the  county. 

Another  statement  which  I  found  to  be  of  great  interest  to  taxpayers 
was  one  which  showed  plainly  and  precisely  how  $100  of  taxes  was  ex- 
pended. It  gave  the  exact  proportions  of  $100  which  were  paid  for  the 
support  of  schools;  for  building  new  roads;  for  maintaining  old  roads; 
for  interest;  for  sinking  funds;  for  expenses  of  courts;  for  charity,  and 
so  on  through  all  the  separate  activities  of  the  county.  I  believe  more 
taxpayers  had  something  to  say  to  me  about  this  statement  than  any 
other  published  during  the  time  I  was  connected  with  the  county 
government. 

Uninformed,  Unconcerned  Democracy 

13.  But  after  all  a  great  part  of  the  shortcomings  of  county  officials 
and  a  great  deal  of  the  looseness  which  prevails  in  the  management 
of  county  affairs  can  be  charged  to  the  people  themselves.  There  may 
be  some  question  as  to  the  advisability  of  a  law  making  suffrage  com- 
pulsory, but  there  could  be  no  question  of  the  advisability  of  a  law 


90  County  Government 

(if  it  could  be  enforced)  making  it  compulsory  upon  every  taxpayer  to 
interest  himself  to  some  extent  in  acquiring  a  certain  amount  of  knowl- 
edge of  his  county's  financial  affairs. 

A  few  years  ago  there  were  evidences  of  dissatisfaction  with  the  tax 
rate  of  our  county  as  shown  by  short  communications  appearing  in 
the  newspapers.  The  Board  of  Commissioners  were  convinced  that 
an  increase  for  the  coming  year  would  be  necessary  and  had  made 
some  effort  to  prepare  the  public  for  it.  A  few  weeks  before  the  date 
when  the  tax  levy  had  to  be  made  I  published  in  the  daily  papers  a 
budget  or  estimate  of  the  next  year's  expenditures  and  also  an  esti- 
mate of  receipts,  showing  plainly  that  we  could  not  get  through  the 
year  on  the  same  tax  rate.  In  my  communication  accompanying  the 
estimate  I  asked  that  any  citizen  or  taxpayer  who  objected  to  an  in- 
crease in  the  levy  should  indicate,  either  through  the  newspapers  or  at 
the  next  meeting  of  the  board,  where  he  thought  a  reduction  could  be 
made  in  the  estimated  expenses.  Not  a  single  taxpayer  accepted  the 
invitation.  The  increase  in  the  levy  was  made,  and  for  some  time  after- 
wards nearly  every  issue  of  the  papers  contained  some  criticism  of  the 
excessive  tax  rate  which  was  being  laid  on  the  community,  and  the 
necessity  for  the  strictest  economy  by  the  officials. 

It  must  be  remembered  that  my  experience  in  county  affairs  has  been 
drawn  from  a  county  in  which  there  is  a  very  large  percentage  of  busi- 
ness men  and  men  familiar  with  financial  matters,  and  these  have  a 
great  deal  to  do  with  molding  and  guiding  public  opinion.  The  glaring 
defects  about  which  we  read  so  often  have  not  existed  in  New  Hanover 
County  for  a  number  of  years,  and  our  affairs  are  in  almost  as  good 
condition  as  we  can  hope  for  under  existing  laws.  Every  department 
of  county  business  except  the  Board  of  Education,  and  that  would  have 
been  done  if  the  Board  of  Commissioners  had  possessed  the  necessary 
authority  to  require  it,  is  regularly  audited  by  an  expert  accountant  in 
no  way  connected  with  our  county  government.  Possibly  some  of  the 
improved  methods  we  have  adopted,  while  they  work  admirably  for  us, 
might  not  be  desirable  in  a  large  county  with  no  city  of  considerable 
population.  If  the  State  required  all  counties  to  be  uniform  in  methods, 
records,  accounts,  reports,  etc.,  the  county  audit  would  be  sufficient  and 
there  would  be  no  need  for  the  State  to  attempt  to  provide  an  audit 
which  is  perfunctory  and  of  little  value.  If  there  were  uniformity,  tax- 
payers in  those  counties  which  did  not  compare  favorably  with  their 
neighbors,  and  organizations  such  as  yours,  and  publications  such  as 
the  University  News  Letter,  would  soon  be  asking  unpleasant  and  em- 
barrassing questions.  Therefoi-e,  while  no  opportunity  should  be  neg- 
lected to  improve  any  part  of  county  administration,  the  part  of  wisdom 
is  to  persistently  press  the  reform  of  a  system  known  to  be  illogical 
and  cumbersome. 


In  Noeth  Carolina  91 

Constructive  Suggestions 

14.  If  I  should  attempt  to  suggest  the  needs  most  sorely  felt  in  our 
county  administration,  I  could  not  do  better  than  to  use  the  words  of  the 
Director  of  Westchester  County  (New  York)  Research  Bureau  in  enu- 
merating the  needs  of  his  own  county: 

1.  The  greatest  efficiency  consistent  with  economy  in  the  administra- 
tion of  public  office. 

2.  The  greatest  economy  in  the  expenditure  of  public  funds,  con- 
sistent with  efficiency. 

3.  Such  a  system  of  public  accounting  as  will  answer  all  questions  of 
the  conditions  of  public  funds  at  any  time. 

4.  Such  a  system  of  public  service  records  as  will  show  in  detail  the 
eflaciency  and  fidelity  of  public  employees. 

Although  we  may  never  expect  to  accomplish  the  perfect  adminis- 
tration of  county  affairs  until  the  people  themselves  arrive  at  a  just 
appreciation  of  their  duties  and  responsibilities  in  the  selection  of  public 
officials,  I  am  satisfied  we  would  come  very  much  nearer  to  attaining 
the  goal  if  we  should  change  our  laws  so  as  to  provide: 

1st.  A  small  board  of  commissioners  with  complete  authority  over  all 
county  business. 

2d.  Machinery  by  which  county  and  municipal  activities  could  be 
combined  whenever  the  people  desired  it. 

3d.  Uniformity  in  the  keeping  of  all  records  and  accounts,  their 
periodic  auditing,  and  publishing  of  full  information  in  convenient  form 
for  circulation. 

4th.  Changing  of  the  tax  laws,  preferably  in  line  with  recommenda- 
tions made  by  the  State  Tax  Commission. 


92  County  Government 


CHAPTER  X 

County  Accounting:  Uniform  Systems  and  County 

Budgets 

George  G.  Scott,  C.  P.  A.,  Chairman  N.  C.  State  Board 
of  Accountancy 

1.  Definitions.  Practical  accounting  is  divided  into  two  distinctive 
classes,  viz:   Commercial  Accounting  and  Governmental  Accounting. 

There  is  a  recognized  distinction  between  these  two  classes,  notwith- 
standing the  underlying  principles  of  both  are  identical. 

Commercial  Accounting  is  distinguished  from  Governmental,  in  that 
it  covers  the  operations  of  a  profit-making  undertaking,  that  may  be 
unlimited  in  its  scope  of  activities  through  individual  control  or  owner- 
ship. It  is  a  system  of  accounts  that  produces  information  of  the  profits 
or  losses  of  a  business  of  profit-making. 

Governmental  Accounting  is  a  system  of  accounts  that  covers  the 
operations  of  the  functions  of  government,  limited  in  its  scope  of  activi- 
ties by  law  and  public  control.  It  is  a  system  of  fund  accounting  that 
produces  information  of  the  operations  and  condition  of  its  funds. 

The  general  scope  of  Governmental  Accounting  covers  all  of  the 
departments  and  institutions  of  the  state  or  government,  also  towns  and 
cities,  counties  and  other  political  divisions. 

There  is  no  phase  of  governmental  accounting  that  occupies  a  higher 
position  of  general  importance,  and  at  the  same  time  has  developed  so 
little  and  is  so  crude  and  so  inadequate  and  out  of  date  as  are  our  county 
methods  of  accounting. 

The  principle  of  county  government  is  what  is  known  as  the  federal 
form,  in  that  it  is  departmental;  each  department  or  officer  is  inde- 
pendent of  the  other,  with  no  central  accounting  control. 

Each  officer,  board,  or  commission,  in  their  independent  relations 
one  to  the  other,  maintains  his  or  its  own  accounting  procedures  with- 
out any  regard  to  the  requirements  necessary  for  the  preparation  of  a 
general  financial  statement  of  the  county  as  a  whole. 

The  laws  affecting  the  accounting  procedures  of  a  county  do  not  con- 
template a  system  of  accounts  beyond  the  account  of  cash  handlings. 

There  is  no  provision  requiring  the  maintenance  of  general  books  of 
accounting  control  that  will  control  the  liabilities,  the  revenues  and 
expenses,  the  acquisition,  disposition,  and  custodianship  of  values,  which 
are  necessary  to  exhibit  correct  information  of  the  operations  and  the 
financial  condition  of  the  county. 


In  North  Carolina  93 

While  the  volume  and  complexity  of  county  finance  has  yearly 
increased,  there  has  not  been  any  advancement  in  the  methods  of  con- 
trol, which  has  adversely  affected  the  efBciency  of  administration  more 
than  all  other  factors  combined.  It  is  a  fundamental  principle  that  the 
eflBiciency  and  economy  of  administration  cannot  be  any  higher  than  the 
accuracy  and  intelligence  of  the  information  produced  by  an  adequate 
system  of  accounts. 

In  an  unpublished  review  of  the  accounting  systems  of  the  State 
Departments,  State  Institutions,  Municipalities  and  Counties  of  the 
State,  which  I  had  the  pleasure  of  preparing  last  year  for  special  pur- 
poses, are  statements  concerning  certain  phases  of  the  subject  under 
discussion  which  I  shall  quote: 

"Our  laws,  governing  the  plan  of  departmental  organization  of  the 
state,  provide  that  the  business  of  each  department  be  conducted  in  a 
separate  and  independent  fashion,  and  contemplates  that  each  of  the 
organizations  shall  be  responsible  for  its  own  accounting  system,  with 
limitations  to  cover  the  record  of  operations  represented  only  by  a 
movement  of  cash,  and  omits  to  require  the  departments,  institutions, 
municipalities,  and  counties  of  the  state  to  maintain  an  adequate  system 
of  accounts  to  record  all  transactions  affecting  the  acquisition,  disposi- 
tion, and  custodianship  of  values,  and  a  controlling  system  of  the 
expenses  and  revenues. 

"While  the  scope  of  the  plan  of  state  government  is  departmental, 
it  fails  to  provide  a  central  department  of  general  accounting  and 
statistical  control,  in  which  the  financial  statements  of  the  depart- 
ments and  institutions  may  be  consolidated  into  a  general  statement 
that  would  exhibit  a  correct  view  of  the  financial  position  of  the  state. 

"The  inadequacy  of  the  system  precludes  the  construction  of  satis- 
factory comparisons  of  the  institutional  operations  and  departmental 
economies. 

The  accounting  systems  of  the  state,  with  few  exceptions,  which 
includes  its  departments,  institutions,  municipalities,  and  counties,  are 
what  is  known  as  the  'Cash  Book  System,'  or  the  receipts  and  payments 
system." 

2.  Cash  Book  System.  In  a  cash  book  system  of  accounting,  the 
accounts  of  the  operations  are  maintained  (if  any  accounts  are  kept 
at  all)  and  supported  only  from  the  record  of  receipts  and  disburse- 
ments of  cash.  A  statement  prepared  from  such  a  system  of  accounts 
is  called  a  statement  of  receipts  and  disbursements.  A  statement  of 
receipts  and  disbursements  is  an  account  of  cash  handlings,  and  is  a 
schedule  supporting  the  cash  balances  and  performs  no  other  functions. 
The  classification  of  the  accounts  of  such  statements  merely  indicate 
or  specifies  the  accounts  affected  by  a  movement  of  cash,  which  as  a 
whole  is  meaningless,  valueless,  a  misguide,  and  the  information  pro- 
duced leads  to  nowhere. 


94  County  Government 

Cash  receipts  are  not  revenues.  A  statement  of  receipts  is  a  record 
of  the  conversion  of  assets  into  cash,  or  the  creation  of  liabilities. 

Disbursements  are  not  expenses.  A  statement  of  disbursements  is  a 
record  of  the  extinguishment  of  liabilities  or  the  conversion  of  cash 
assets  into  some  other  class  of  assets. 

There  is  an  important  distinction  between  a  statement  of  receipts 
and  disbursements  and  a  statement  of  revenues  and  expenses. 

A  statement  of  revenues  is  the  ascertained  income  belonging  to  the 
fiscal  period,  regardless  of  when  or  how  it  is  collected. 

A  statement  of  expenses  of  the  fiscal  period  is  a  record  of  expenses 
belonging  to  the  fiscal  period,  regardless  of  when  or  how  they  are  paid. 
An  annual  statement  of  the  receipts  and  disbursements  of  a  county, 
representing  the  collection  of  its  revenues  and  the  payment  of  its 
expenses  that  may  belong  to  a  past  or  future  fiscal  period,  is  entirely 
a  different  statement  from  a  statement  of  revenues  and  expenses  show- 
ing all  revenues  and  expenses  belonging  to  the  year,  whether  they  are 
collected  or  paid. 

The  cash  book  system  is  a  record  of  the  revenues  or  other  receipts 
that  may  belong  to  the  present,  past,  or  future  fiscal  period,  instead  of 
a  record  covering  the  period  to  which  they  belong.  The  expenses  are 
recorded  when  they  are  paid  instead  of  being  recorded  when  they  are 
incurred. 

With  few  or  no  exceptions,  the  counties  of  the  State  maintain  only 
the  cash  book  system,  and  this  accounts  for  the  failure  of  the  counties 
to  submit  complete  and  intelligent  financial  statements  that  would 
exhibit  a  correct  view  of  financial  conditions. 

To  illustrate  the  distinction  between  a  statement  of  receipts  and  dis- 
bursements and  a  statement  of  revenues  and  expenses,  reference  is 
made  to  the  accountant's  report  of  the  audit  of  the  State  Treasurer's 
books  covering  the  fiscal  year  1913. 

The  accountant's  report  containing  the  constructed  account  of  the 
general  fund  of  the  state  showed  a  deficit  amounting  to  $372,045.85  while 
the  books  and  the  report  of  the  State  Treasurer  presented  a  view  of  the 
condition  of  the  fund  by  showing  a  cash  balance  amounting  to  $333,- 
040.28,  representing  a  difference  of  more  than  $700,000.00. 

In  the  case  of  a  large  and  important  county  of  the  state,  the  commis- 
sioners submitted  a  statement  at  the  end  of  a  fiscal  year  covering  the 
receipts  and  disbursements,  purporting  to  present  a  correct  view  of 
financial  conditions  that  showed  the  county  was  in  excellent  condition. 

When  the  books  were  audited  by  a  qualified  accountant,  and  the 
proper  accounts  set  up  and  constructed  on  a  basis  of  the  revenue  and 
expense  system,  information  was  produced  showing  a  deficit  of  more 
than  $200,000. 

The  general  limited  knowledge  of  the  theory  of  practical  accounting 
presents  the  most  difficult  problem  in  the  task  of  bettering  our  account- 
ing methods. 


In  North  Carolina  95 

It  is  unfortunately  true  that  the  professional  men  of  our  country, 
who  are  largely  college  graduates,  know  even  less  of  the  science  and 
theory  of  practical  accounts  than  the  average  uneducated  bookkeeper. 

When  one  of  our  most  distinguished  legal  authorities  was  asked  to 
address  a  body  of  accountants  on  some  phase  of  the  profession,  he 
replied  in  embarrassment  that  there  was  one  thing  he  gave  himself 
credit  for,  and  that  was,  he  had  sense  enough  to  acknowledge  his  ignor- 
ance of  statements  and  figures.  He  had  never  been  able  to  comprehend 
any  kind  of  statement  made  up  of  figures  beyond  a  simple  statement 
of  cash  receipts  and  disbursements. 

It  can  be  authoritatively  stated  that  this  is  not  an  exaggerated  admis- 
sion of  the  average  lawyer,  who  represents  a  high  class  of  our  educated 
citizenship,  who  is  responsible  for  our  legislation,  and  who  is  the  product 
of  this  and  similar  institutions. 

A  student  may  distinguish  himself  in  his  college  courses,  but  if,  in 
the  completion  of  his  education,  he  omits  to  equip  himself  with  a  knowl- 
edge of  the  theory  of  practical  accounting,  he  will  go  out  in  the  world 
largely  deficient. 

The  complexity  of  business  transactions  in  the  modern  development 
of  human  activities  now  demand  a  knowledge  of  the  theory  of  accounts 
by  both  the  professional  and  business  man. 

Does  not  the  analysis  of  this  phase  of  the  subject  suggest  that,  after 
all,  the  responsibility  for  the  inadequacy  of  the  accounting  methods  of 
not  only  our  counties  and  municipalities  but  state  departments  and  in- 
stitutions rests  on  the  educational  institutions  for  their  failure  to 
include  in  their  curriculums  practical  accounting  and  commercial 
economics? 

3.  County  Government.  The  complexity  of  our  county  government  is 
not  generally  known.  The  various  special  laws  enacted  from  time  to 
time,  together  with  the  general  laws,  have  made  the  government  of  our 
counties  the  most  unscientific  of  any  known  governmental  organization. 

Counties  are  divided  into  districts  known  as  townships,  and  each 
township  has  its  own  functional  organization  under  special  and  general 
laws. 

There  are  in  some  counties  as  many  as  five  to  twenty  separate  and 
independent  authoritative  organizations,  commissions,  or  boards,  such 
as  County  School  Boards,  District  School  Boards,  County  Road  Commis- 
sioners, District  or  Township  Road  Commissioners,  and  various  boards 
or  commissions  to  handle  special  funds.  In  one  county  of  the  state  it 
appears  that  under  the  general  and  various  special  laws  it  has  104 
separate  and  distinct  funds.  In  some  counties  there  are  as  many  as 
five  or  six  custodians  of  cash  exclusive  of  the  regular  county  treasurer. 

Under  the  general  laws,  and  as  contemplated  in  the  original  organi- 
zations of  our  counties,  considerable  power  and  authority  is  invested 
in  the  board  of  commissioners.    Under  the  wide-open  privilege  granted 


96  County  Government 

our  representatives  in  the  legislature  to  introduce  and  have  enacted 
special  laws  affecting  their  respective  counties,  there  have  been  enacted 
from  time  to  time  special  laws  affecting  the  authority  and  powers  of  the 
commissioners  to  such  extent  that  in  some  cases  it  has  reached  a  point 
of  absurdity. 

An  analysis  of  county  government  will  show  that  some  counties  con- 
tain so  much  politics,  and  are  burdened  with  such  an  unceasing  enact- 
ment of  special  laws  dividing  the  government  into  independent  units 
and  the  authority  and  responsibility  so  divided  and  disseminated,  that 
efficiency  and  responsibility  are  apparently  destroyed. 

4.  BoAKD  OF  County  Commissioners.  Some  one  has  defined  the  board 
of  county  commissioners  and  their  duties  under  the  general  and  special 
laws  in  the  following  language:  "A  board  of  county  commissioners  con- 
sists of  three  to  five  men  who  have  defeated  their  opponents  in  an  elec- 
tion that  is  held  every  two  years."  "Their  duties  are  to  meet  every  first 
Monday  of  the  month  for  the  purpose  of  ordering  the  payment  of  county 
claims." 
The  definition  is  not  as  incorrect  as  it  may  appear  to  be  incomplete. 
The  most  conspicuous  defect  in  connection  with  the  duties  of  the 
county  commissioners  is  that,  instead  of  maintaining  a  system  of  con- 
trol at  the  purchasing  end,  or  at  the  time  the  liabilities  are  incurred, 
the  unsuccessful  attempt  is  seriously  made  to  control  the  expenses  by 
a  process  of  inspection  of  the  bills  rendered  therefor,  which  may  have 
been  incurred  without  their  knowledge  or  consent.  This  sort  of  control 
is  only  limited  to  their  power  of  the  postponement  of  payment,  which 
affords  a  conspicuous  false  basis  for  believing  that  the  power  of  direct- 
ing the  payment  of  a  debt  is  the  power  of  controlling  its  making. 

The  fact  is  overlooked  that  expense-making  control  is  governed  by 
the  power  of  authority  to  incur  the  liability,  and  not  by  the  power  of 
approval  of  its  payment.  Approval  of  a  claim  for  payment  is  the  exer- 
cise of  the  authority  to  extinguish  the  liability. 

Examinations  of  the  methods  of  county  administration  have  disclosed 
a  laxity  and  inefficiency  resulting  from  the  ignorance  of  the  effect  of 
operations  on  county  finance,  which  is  due  to  the  inadequate  cash  book 
system  information,  that  could  not  be  found  in  any  class  of  successful 
private  business. 

The  final  result  of  such  unscientific  and  unintelligent  administration 
is  a  loss  and  waste  sustained  by  the  taxpayers  that  in  amount  can 
only  be  approximated. 

5.  County  Sheriffs.  Under  the  law  the  sheriffs  are  the  tax  collectors 
and  collect  practically  all  of  the  county  revenues.  For  his  services  under 
the  general  law  he  is  paid  5  per  cent  of  the  first  $50,000  and  21/2  per 
cent  on  the  amount  in  excess  of  $50,000.  In  addition  to  the  commis- 
sions for  collecting  the  revenues,  he  gets  certain  fees  for  serving  legal 
papers. 


In  North  Carolina  97 

Under  special  acts  some  of  the  counties  have  what  is  known  as  the 
salary  system,  and  in  such  cases  he  is  paid  a  stipulated  salary  instead 
of  commissions. 

He  is  charged  with  the  responsibility  of  collecting  not  only  the  ad 
valorem  taxes  for  both  county  and  state,  but  all  of  the  special  licenses 
or  privilege  taxes  for  both  county  and  state. 

The  annual  tax  books  are  given  him  in  September  or  October  of  each 
year,  prepared  from  the  individual  tax  returns  made  during  the  month 
of  May  of  each  year  and  the  statement  of  the  corporation  and  excess 
taxes  furnished  by  the  State  Tax  Commission. 

The  sheriff  is  elected  by  the  taxpayers  of  the  county,  and  his  popu- 
larity as  an  officer  may  re*t  on  his  tactful  methods  of  collecting  taxes 
from  those  to  whom  his  continuation  in  office  depends. 

The  methods  of  handling  the  funds  that  come  into  his  hands  are  too 
well  known  to  be  interesting.  He  does  not  turn  into  the  county  treasury 
his  collections  in  a  manner  demanded  by  a  modern  business  system, 
but,  instead,  his  remittances  may  be  at  intervals  or  at  such  times  as 
he  may  respond  to  the  pressing  needs  of  the  county. 

He  deposits  his  funds  to  the  credit  of  accounts  he  controls,  and  fre- 
quently to  the  same  bank  account  with  his  private  funds;  when  in  such 
cases  county  funds  become  mixed  with  private  funds. 

He  may  not  keep  a  cash  book  account  of  his  detail  collections,  and 
in  some  cases  he  nor  any  one  else  knows  what  he  has  collected  or  what 
he  has  not,  except  by  crude  or  approximate  methods. 

Very  few  sheriffs  maintain  an  office  where  taxpayers  are  required 
to  go  to  pay  their  taxes,  but  instead,  he  makes  his  collections  on  the 
highways  or  at  central  points  most  convenient  to  the  taxpayers. 

Under  the  present  system,  the  status  of  the  account  of  the  sheriff 
is  unknown  before  the  arrival  of  the  date  of  final  settlement  of  the  tax 
book  charges.  It  is  not  a  very  unusual  occurrence  for  him  to  receive 
the  tax  books  for  the  incoming  year  before  he  settles  the  taxes  of  the 
past  year,  giving  him  an  opportunity  of  collecting  from  the  new  tax 
books  a  sufficient  amount  to  settle  the  balance  due  on  the  old  books. 

In  one  case  where  the  sheriff  obtained  the  new  tax  books  prior  to 
date  of  settlement  of  the  old  charges,  he  used  more  than  |20,000  collected 
from  the  new  tax  books  to  settle  the  former  charges,  enabling  the  county 
commissioners  to  close  their  fiscal  year  with  no  unpaid  claims. 

It  is  seen  that  the  concealment  of  the  shortage  of  the  sheriff  and  the 
liability  to  the  incoming  year  was  successfully  accomplished. 

It  is  obvious  that  under  such  inadequate  and  out-of-date  methods  it 
is  possible  for  a  board  of  county  commissioners  to  close  a  fiscal  year 
showing  no  unpaid  bills  or  indebtedness,  and  at  the  same  time  the 
county  may  have  a  deficit  amounting  to  many  thousand  dollars. 
7 


98  County  Government 

It  is  further  seen  that  such  methods  make  it  possible  for  large  sums 
of  the  public  funds  to  be  appropriated  to  private  use,  at  least  tempo- 
rarily, without  the  knowledge  of  the  commissioners  or  the  public. 

6.  County  Clebks.  County  clerks  are  court  ofllcers.  Their  principal 
duties  are  to  keep  the  records  of  the  civil  and  criminal  courts. 

The  official  duties  of  the  county  clerk  require  the  handling  of  funds 
as  he  is  custodian,  with  few  exceptions,  of  all  court  funds  and  other 
receipts  arising  from  his  office. 

Examinations  of  the  books  of  county  clerks  have  disclosed  that,  in 
most  cases,  no  cash  book  account  is  kept  showing  the  receipts  and  dis- 
bursements of  his  office.  The  condition  is  such  that  it  is  a  task  of  great 
difficulty  to  make  a  satisfactory  audit  of  his  books. 

The  books  consist  largely  of  reference  docket  records,  and  to  audit 
these  records  and  prepare  a  statement  of  account  requires  a  construc- 
tion of  various  accounts  that  enter  into  an  intelligent  statement. 

In  the  absence  of  a  detail  cash  account  and  properly  maintained 
system  of  accounts,  it  is  clearly  seen  that  the  amount  of  cash  he  has  on 
hand  belonging  to  his  office  or  to  claimants  is  unknown,  except  as  evi- 
denced by  his  bank  book  account  and  his  periodical  reports. 

In  the  course  of  years,  the  trust  funds  and  unclaimed  fees  may 
accumulate  and  amount  to  thousands  of  dollars,  of  which  no  intelligent 
accounts  are  maintained  except  in  the  scattered  reference  records  and 
unaudited  reports. 

While  these  items  may  be  duly  recorded  in  official  docket  records 
waiting  disposition  or  for  claimants  that  may  never  come,  and  are 
not  turned  into  the  county  treasury,  the  question  arises.  What  finally 
becomes  of  such  funds? 

7.  County  Accounting  and  Financiai,  Statements.  There  is  no  gen- 
eral law  requiring  the  books  of  the  county  to  be  audited  by  certified 
public  accountants.  The  law  does  not  contemplate  the  maintenance 
of  general  books  of  account,  but  instead,  provides  for  the  examination 
and  audit  of  all  claims  presented  for  payment  in  a  cash  book  system. 

Section  1389  of  the  Revisal  provides  that  the  board  of  commissioners 
shall  elect  by  ballot  a  finance  committee  composed  of  three  intelligent 
taxpaying  citizens  whose  duty  it  shall  be  to  inquire  into,  investigate 
and  report  by  public  advertisement,  at  the  courthouse  and  one  public 
place  in  each  township  of  the  county  or  in  a  newspaper  at  their  option, 
if  one  be  published  in  the  county,  a  detailed  and  itemized  account  of 
the  condition  of  the  county  finances,  together  with  any  other  informa- 
tion appertaining  to  any  funds,  misappropriations  of  county  funds,  or 
any  malfeasance  in  office  by  any  county  officer.  It  shall  be  the  duty 
of  the  finance  committee  to  make  and  publish  their  report  on  or  before 
the  first  Monday  of  December  in  each  year. 

Pursuant  to  this  law,  it  is  the  practice  of  some  of  the  counties  to 
appoint  a  finance  committee.     The  citizens  selected  may  be  chosen  not 


In  North  Carolina  99 

for  their  accounting  ability,  but  on  account  of  their  business  or  political 
standing.  The  published  reports  are  sometimes  seen,  but  they  are  not 
financial  statements  that  exhibit  a  correct  and  intelligent  view  of  the 
financial  position  of  the  county. 

There  are,  however,  a  few  of  our  counties  that  require  a  detail  audit 
by  certified  accountants  and  that  have  intelligent  financial  statements 
prepared  that  set  forth  the  condition  of  the  county. 

Examinations  of  the  books  of  county  officers  by  qualified  accountants 
have  disclosed  some  very  interesting  and  serious  defects  in  the  present 
methods. 

In  one  case  it  was  discovered  that  the  county  treasurer  had  charged 
out  in  his  cash  book  the  amount  of  the  interest  on  the  outstanding 
bonds  at  the  time  he  remitted  the  funds  to  New  York  banks  to  meet  the 
maturing  coupons,  and  again  charged  the  same  amount  out  as  a  dis- 
bursement when  he  received  the  coupons  from  the  bank,  making  a  double 
charge  for  the  same  disbursement.  This  had  been  done  a  number  of 
times,  notwithstanding  his  books  and  accounts  had  been  audited  and 
examined  by  the  committee  and  found  correct.  The  certified  accountant 
who  discovered  the  errors  found  by  investigating  the  transactions  evi- 
dence that  the  errors  were  committed  through  ignorance  rather  than 
with  an  intent  to  defraud. 

In  another  case,  the  county  treasurer  or  the  committee  who  examined 
his  books  made  an  error  in  the  addition  of  the  disbursements  of  his 
books  of  several  thousand  dollars  in  favor  of  the  officer  which  was  not 
discovered  until  the  accountant  examined  the  books  three  years  after 
the  treasurer  had  gone  out  of  office. 

The  most  frequent  errors  are  found  in  the  settlements  and  reports  of 
officers,  especially  in  the  statement  of  settlements  of  sheriffs. 

The  preparation  of  the  account  of  the  settlement  of  a  sheriff  is  a  task 
of  some  difficulty  in  the  absence  of  proper  recorded  information,  and 
requires  an  experienced  qualified  accountant. 

It  is  sometimes  found  that  settlements  are  not  made  annually  with 
the  sheriffs.  In  one  case  there  appeared  to  have  been  no  settlement  for 
four  years,  and  in  such  case  the  sheriff  nor  any  one  else  had  any  idea 
what  he  was  due  the  county. 

A  number  of  counties  throughout  the  state  have  adopted  the  salary 
system,  which  provides  that  the  county  officers  be  paid  a  stipulated 
salary  instead  of  commissions  and  fees,  and  that  all  commissions  and 
fees  be  turned  into  the  county  treasury. 

Accountants  have  discovered  that  very  few  if  any  of  these  counties 
maintain  a  proper  system  of  controlling  accounts  of  the  officers'  fees  and 
commissions.  In  their  cash  book  system,  the  revenues  from  this  source 
are  shown  as  the  amount  collected  instead  of  the  amount  charged  the 
officers.  It  is  clear  that  in  absence  of  proper  controlling  accounts  of 
these  fees  and  commissions  that  are  chargeable  to  the  officers  respon- 


100  County  Government 

sible  for  their  collection,  it  is  not  known  whether  they  are  all  collected, 
and  if  collected,  whether  they  are  all  accounted  for. 

Some  of  the  counties  have  what  is  known  as  a  "county  auditor"  whose 
duties  are  prescribed  and  chiefly  consist  of  auditing  the  claims  presented 
for  payment  and  the  preparation  of  the  tax  books. 

It  is  well  known  that  county  auditors  are  not  in  all  cases  qualified 
accountants  possessing  the  ability  to  devise,  install,  and  maintain  a 
proper  system  of  accounts,  or  to  prepare  and  construct  intelligent 
financial  statements  of  the  county. 

These  officers  are  appointees,  and  are  of  course  not  required  to  pass 
the  examination  conducted  by  the  State  Board  of  Accountancy  as  to 
their  qualifications.  They  may  be  in  some  cases  the  best  obtainable  for 
the  limited  compensation  provided,  and  from  the  knowledge  of  the 
commissioners  of  the  qualifications  required  for  the  position. 

County  auditors  should  be  qualified  accountants  who  understand  the 
theory  of  practical  accounts.  There  is  a  wide  distinction  in  the  ability 
required  to  audit  claims  presented  for  payment  and  that  which  is  re- 
quired to  devise,  install,  and  maintain  proper  controlling  accounts. 
The  general  books  of  account  should  present  the  necessary  information 
required  in  the  preparation  of  statements  that  will  exhibit  a  correct 
view  of  the  operations  and  financial  condition  of  the  county. 

8.  Uniform  Systems.  It  is  impossible  to  satisfactorily  determine  the 
efficiency  of  administration  of  county  governments,  without  compara- 
tive information  produced  by  a  system  of  uniform  accounts. 

A  uniformity  of  the  classification  of  the  accounts  of  revenues  and 
expenses  is  necessary  for  a  comparative  analysis  which  would  produce 
information  of  the  highest  statistical  and  economic  value.  A  uniform 
system  of  accounting  procedures  would  present  to  the  public  com- 
parative costs  of  operations.  It  would  be  possible  to  determine  whether 
the  administration  of  one  county  government  was  more  economically 
administered  than  another.  The  information  produced  under  such  a 
system  would  be  of  the  highest  interest  and  value  to  the  taxpayers.  The 
annual  year-book  of  our  counties  would  command  the  largest  circula- 
tion of  any  character  of  governmental  reports  or  statistics.  The  state- 
ments and  reports  of  one  county  would  be  well  understood  by  the  tax- 
payers of  other  counties.  It  would  be  a  simple  and  practical  teaching 
of  governmental  economics.  It  would  present  a  basis  for  the  solution 
of  our  tax  problems. 

A  manual  of  accounting  procedures  should  be  prepared  under  the 
authority  of  law  covering  the  maintenance  and  the  books  required,  also 
the  statements  and  reports  of  officers.  The  manual  would  show  in 
detail  how  the  general  books  and  accounts  should  be  kept,  how  to  close 
the  books  and  to  prepare  uniform  financial  and  operating  statements 
for  each  administration  division,  office,  and  fund  with  their  interlocking 
relationship  to  the  general  consolidated  statement  of  the  county  as 
a  whole. 


In  North  Carolina  101 

Under  such  a  system  the  expense  would  be  set  up  when  incurred, 
regardless  of  when  they  may  be  paid,  and  thrown  into  the  period  they 
belong  to;  likewise,  the  revenues.  The  properties  and  all  other  assets 
and  liabilities  would  be  set  up  on  the  books  of  account. 

The  economic  advantages  of  adequate  and  uniform  accounts  for 
counties  can  be  illustrated  in  the  case  of  the  transportation  companies 
of  the  country. 

One  of  the  first  important  things  done  by  the  Interstate  Commerce 
Commission  when  it  was  organized  under  the  federal  laws  was  to  devise 
and  establish  uniform  system  of  accounts  for  all  transportation  com- 
panies. The  results  have  been  marvelous.  The  railroads  of  our  country 
are  producing  comparative  information  of  operations  by  the  uniformity 
of  accounting  methods  that  have  resulted  in  an  efficiency  unparalleled 
in  the  world's  history  of  transportation  operations. 

9.  Budget  System.  What  is  known  as  the  Budget  System  is  a  finan- 
cial program  of  the  estimated  operating  revenues  and  expenses  care- 
fully and  intelligently  charted  and  worked  out  in  detail  covering  a 
fiscal  period. 

A  distinctive  advantage  of  a  budget  system  for  a  county  is  that  it  pre- 
sents the  proposed  financial  program  as  a  whole  in  Its  relation  to  the 
past  and  future. 

When  proposals  are  dealt  with  in  a  separate  fashion,  as  is  now  the 
practice,  economy  is  impossible.  Every  item  may  be  dealt  with  care- 
fully and  honestly,  yet  the  sum  of  the  totals  may  present  an  unpleasant 
view  and  have  an  unsatisfactory  effect  on  the  finances  as  a  whole. 

It  is  quite  impossible  to  prepare  a  budget  from  an  inadequate  system 
of  accounts.  A  budget  cannot  be  prepared  from  cash  book  information. 
The  revenues  and  expenses  of  a  county  covering  and  belonging  to  the 
past  year  must  be  known  in  a  classified  detail,  in  order  to  have  a  basis 
for  formulating  a  budget  for  the  future  year. 

The  counties  of  the  state  do  not  maintain  sufficiently  adequate  sys- 
tems from  which  satisfactory  and  intelligent  budgets  can  be  prepared. 

The  most  important  work  of  a  board  of  county  commissioners  during 
their  entire  term  of  office  would  be  the  consideration  and  adoption  of 
the  annual  budget  of  the  county. 

Budgets  should  be  published  and  the  taxpayers  given  an  opportunity 
to  be  heard  before  adoption.  The  adoption  of  the  budget  means  that 
the  board  has  appropriated  the  estimated  revenues  of  the  incoming 
year  for  the  purposes  stated. 

The  budget  after  being  prepared  and  adopted,  in  a  classified  detail, 
presents  a  clear  and  intelligent  view  of  its  effect  upon  the  finances  of 
the  county  as  a  whole. 

In  the  office  of  county  commissioners,  where  the  general  books  are 
kept,  the  budget  accounts  are  set  up  on  the  budget  ledger,  each  account 
credited  with  its  allotment.    To  each  of  these  accounts  will  be  charged 


102  County  Government 

monthly  the  amount  of  the  expenses  incurred  and  belonging  thereto. 
At  the  close  of  business  each  month  a  statement  of  the  condition  as 
shown  by  the  budget  accounts  is  prepared. 

The  form  of  statement  used  contains  three  columns.  The  first  column 
would  show  opposite  each  account  the  annual  appropriation,  the  second 
column  the  apportionment  of  the  allotment  belonging  to  the  period  the 
statement  covers,  and  the  third  column  the  amount  of  the  expenses 
belonging  to  the  period. 

Such  a  statement  would  exhibit  comparative  and  intelligent  infor- 
mation which  would  be  an  important  guide  in  the  administration  of 
county  operations.  It  would  indicate  whether  or  not  the  operations 
were  within  the  budget  limitations.  The  taxpaying  public  would  then 
have  an  intelligent  view  from  its  publication  each  month  of  the  public 
finances  as  affected  by  current  operations,  and  would  be  in  position  to 
reach  correct  conclusions  as  regards  the  efficiency  of  administration. 
It  is  clearly  seen  that  the  detailed  information  that  a  budget  system 
statement  presents  is  now  successfully  concealed  under  present  methods 
of  county  government. 

10.  Remedy.  It  may  not  be  improper  to  state  that  the  examination 
of  the  books  of  a  few  counties  during  the  past  twelve  months  by  quali- 
fied accountants  shows  that  in  90  per  cent  of  such  counties  the  errors, 
discrepancies,  and  shortages  aggregated  slightly  less  than  $100,000,  for 
which  the  inadequate  methods  were  responsible,  rather  than  the  dis- 
honesty of  public  officials. 

Accountants  who  are  best  acquainted  with  the  accounting  conditions 
of  the  state  confidentially  admit  and  conservatively  estimate  that  the 
aggregate  losses  to  the  taxpayers  of  the  counties  of  the  state,  directly 
and  indirectly  caused  by  inadequate  methods  of  accounting  and  the  ab- 
sence of  a  budget  system,  would  easily  amount  to  one  million  dollars 
per  annum. 

The  unfolded  facts  in  the  discussion  of  this  subject  unquestionably 
support  the  conclusion  that  the  existing  conditions  of  the  accounting 
methods  of  our  counties  should  be  speedily  remedied. 

While  the  responsibility  for  the  conditions  may  be  shared  by  both 
the  legislature  and  county  authorities,  the  power  of  remedying  the  de- 
fects rests  with  the  former. 

Necessary  laws  should  be  enacted  for  the  creation  of  a  state  commis- 
sion to  deal  with  the  matter,  with  the  following  powers: 

1st.  To  devise,  chart,  and  establish  a  uniform  system  of  accounting 
procedures  for  the  counties  of  the  state;  to  prepare  an  accounting 
manual  thereof,  and  to  require  the  adoption  of  the  budget  system. 

2d.  To  require  all  counties  to  install  such  devised  systems  and  ac- 
counting procedures. 

3d.  To  require  all  counties  to  maintain  such  systems  and  accounting 
procedures. 


In  ISToKTH  Carolina  103 

4th.  To  require  an  annual  audit  and  examination  of  the  books  and 
accounts  by  qualified  accountants. 

5th.  To  require  all  counties  of  the  state  to  cause  to  be  published  an 
annual  year  book  containing  uniform  statements  of  operations  and 
financial  condition  together  with  uniform  statistical  data. 

It  is  very  clear  that  from  the  county  year  books,  consolidated  and 
comparative  statistics  could  be  prepared  which  would  be  of  great  eco- 
nomic value. 


104 


County  Government 


CHAPTER  XI 

More  Intensive  Supervision  of  Rural  Schools  in  North 

Carolina 

li.  C.  Beogden,  State  Agent  Rural  Schools 

Is  there  urgent  need  for  more  intensive  supervision  of  rural  schools 
in  North  Carolina? 

To  answer  this  question  intelligently  and  fully,  the  following  facts 
are  essential,  viz:  (1)  The  rural  school  population  to  be  educated  and 
trained;  (2)  The  number  of  rural  teachers  and  the  number  of  separate 
rural  schools  to  be  directed  and  supervised;  (3)  The  academic  and 
professional  qualifications  of  the  teachers  doing  the  work;  (4)  Length 
of  their  teaching  experience;  (5)  Length  of  time  they  have  taught  in 
the  same  school;  (6)  Length  of  the  rural  school  term;  (7)  The  size 
of  the  territory  over  which  these  teachers  and  separate  schools  are 
located;  (8)  Total  amount  of  money  now  being  spent  annually  for  the 
education  and  training  of  the  country  children;  and  (9)  The  amount  of 
time  now  being  given  to  the  supervision  and  direction  of  these  teachers 
and  separate  schools. 


The  Sltnation  With  Reference  to  the  State  as  a  Whole 


Table  No.  1* 


White 


Rural  school  population - 

Number  of  rural  school  teachers 

Number  separate  rural  schools... 

Number  one-teacher  schools • 

Number  rural  teachers  with  normal  training 

Number  teachers  with  four  years  teaching  experience. 

Number  having  college  diploma 

Average  length  in  days  rural  school  term 

Area  of  State  in  square  miles 

Total  of  all  expenditures  for  rural  schools 

Number  of  county  supyerintendents 

Number  whole-iime  county  superintendents 

Number  part-time  superintendents - 

Per  cent  of  superintendent's  time  given  to  8uper\'isiont 

Number  of  visits  to  each  school  per  year 

Average  length  of  visit... 


455,779 
9,146 
5,500 
3,069 
4,021 
4,031 
1,446 
117.7 
48,740 
$4,277,982.81 
100 
75 
25 
40 
1 
2  hours 


Colored 


•From  report  of  State  School  Superintendent,  1915- '16. 
tU.  8.  Bureau  of  Education 


206,862 
2,869 
2,356 
1,945 
1,492 
1,569 
411 
104 


Total 


662,641 
12.015 
7,856 
5.014 
6,513 
5,600 
1,857 


In  i^oRTH  Carolina  105 

From  the  above  table  it  will  be  seen:  (1)  that  each  of  the  100 
county  superintendents  of  the  state  has,  on  the  average,  a  school  popu- 
lation of  6,626  children  to  be  educated  and  trained;  (2)  that  each 
superintendent  has,  on  an  average,  under  his  direction  and  supervision 
120  rural  teachers,  only  55  of  whom  have  had  normal  training,  only 
56  of  whom  have  had  as  many  as  four  years  teaching  experience,  and 
only  19  of  whom  hold  a  college  diploma;  (3)  that  on  the  average  each 
county  superintendent  has  to  be  responsible  for  directing  and  supervis- 
ing 78  separate  schools,  50  of  which  are  one-teacher  schools,  and  in 
many  of  which  one  teacher  alone  has  to  teach  all  the  7  grades  of  the 
elementary  school,  and  conduct  from  25  to  35  daily  classes;  (4)  that 
this  vast  amount  of  work  has  to  be  attempted  in  a  rural  school  term 
of  117.7  days  for  the  white  and  104  days  for  the  colored  children;  (5) 
that  the  average  area  in  square  miles  over  which  these  120  teachers 
and  78  separate  schools  are  scattered  is  487;  (6)  that  the  average  for 
each  county  of  the  total  expenditures  for  rural  schools  is  $42,779.81,  and 
(7)  that  based  upon  the  reports  of  33  county  superintendents  accord- 
ing to  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Education,  the  per  cent  of  the 
superintendent's  time  given  to  the  direction  and  supervision  of  the 
work  of  these  6,626  rural  school  children,  taught  by  these  120  teachers 
in  78  separate  schools  over  a  territory  of  487  square  miles  is  only  40, 
making  one  visit  only  to  each  school  during  the  year  and  remaining 
on  the  average  only  for  two  hours  on  each  of  these  annual  visits. 

With  the  above  facts  in  mind,  and  the  additional  fact  that  the  ad- 
ministrative duties  of  the  county  superintendent  are  constantly  in- 
creasing leaving  less  time  for  him  each  year  to  visit  his  schools,  it 
must  be  apparent  that  the  county  superintendent  is  barely  able  even 
to  approach  any  real  supervision  of  the  rural  schools.  And  it  must 
also  appear  self-evident,  that  in  consideration  of  the  amount  of  money 
now  expended  for  the  rural  schools  of  the  county,  a  supervision  of  only 
two  hours  each  year  of  each  school  in  the  county  is  clearly  inadequate 
to  enable  the  country  child  to  get  the  most  service  out  of  even  the 
small  amount  of  money  that  is  now  being  expended  for  his  education 
and  training.  When  we  consider  the  further  fact  that  of  the  total 
school  population  of  the  state  the  rural  school  population  constitutes 
81.4  per  cent,  and  that  it  is  the  quality  and  quantity  of  education  and 
training  they  receive  that  is  going  to  determine  in  a  large  measure  the 
degree  of  efficiency  attained  by  this  state  in  its  material,  intellectual 
and  moral  life,  then  it  must  appear  self-evident  that  the  question  of 
more  adequate  supervision  and  direction  of  the  work  of  this  81.4  per 
cent  of  our  present  total  school  population  and  future  citizenship  is 
not  a  local  question  only,  it  is  not  even  a  county-wide  question  only, 
but  a  problem  state-wide  in  its  significance,  and  in  the  urgency  of  its 
successful  solution. 


106 


County  Government 


n 

Rural  and  City  School  SupetTlsion  in  Seyen  RepresentatJTe  Connties 
and  in  Seyen  Cities  Located  Within  Those  Connties 

In  the  fall  of  1916,  we  made  an  investigation  in  seven  representative 
counties  and  the  seven  cities  in  those  counties  for  the  purpose  of 
ascertaining  the  needs  in  each  particular  situation  for  the  direction 
and  supervision  of  the  work  of  its  children;  to  find  what  was  being 
done  in  each  situation  to  meet  these  needs;  and  also  to  find  the  per 
cent  of  its  total  school  fund  each  was  spending  for  the  supervision  of 
its  schools.  The  counties  and  cities  in  which  this  investigation  was 
made  are  the  following,  viz:  Wayne  County,  Goldsboro;  Robeson 
County,  Lumberton;  Cabarrus  County,  Concord;  Cleveland  County, 
Shelby;  Forsyth  County,  Winston-Salem;  Buncombe  County,  Asheville; 
Mecklenburg  County,  Charlotte.  This  investigation  dealt  with  the 
white  schools  only. 

Ill 

What  the  Facts  Show 

Table  No.  2 — Comparative  Table  of  Rural  and  City  School  Supervision 


City 


Number  of  superintendents  reporting 

Average  number  of  separate  schools  per  superintendent 

Average  number  of  white  teachers  per  superintendent.. 

Per  cent  of  white  teachers  college  graduates 

Per  cent  of  teachers  teaching  their  first  term 

Per  cent  of  teachers  in  same  school  or  grade  for  as  many  as  three  years 

Average  length  of  school  term  in  days 

Number  of  whole-time  supervisors  exclusive  of  superintendent 

Number  of  part-time  supervisors  exclusive  of  superintendent 

Average  area  in  square  miles  of  superintendent's  district 

Per  cent  of  total  school  fund  being  spent  for  supervision 


7 

74 

5 

144 

60 

25 

61 

14 

8 

26 

42 

120 

178 

0 

19 

0 

3 

571 

7 

2.43 

14 

From  the  above  table  of  comparisons  the  following  are  the  outstand- 
ing facts,  viz:  (1)  that  each  of  the  seven  county  superintendents  has, 
on  an  average,  approximately  fifteen  times  the  number  of  white  sep- 
arate schools,  and  more  than  twice  the  number  of  white  teachers  to 
direct  and  to  supervise  than  has  his  city  school  associate;  (2)  that 
each  of  the  seven  county  superintendents  has  on  the  average  59  per 
cent  less  of  his  teachers  college  graduates  and  75  per  cent  more  of 
them  teaching  their  first  term  than  has  the  city  school  superintendent; 
(3)  that  each  county  superintendent  has  a  rural  school  term  33  per 
cent  less  than  that  of  the  city  school   superintendent;    (4)    that   the 


In  North  Cakolina  107 

average  area  of  the  seven  county  superintendents'  districts  is  571 
square  miles,  while  the  average  area  of  the  city  school  superintendents' 
district  is  only  7  square  miles;  (5)  that  while  each  of  the  county 
superintendents  has  on  an  average  fifteen  times  as  many  separate 
schools,  more  than  twice  the  number  of  teachers  to  supervise  and  to 
direct,  with  a  school  term  33  per  cent  less  with  these  teachers  and 
schools  scattered  over  an  area  more  than  eighty  times  as  large,  yet, 
notwithstanding  these  facts,  not  one  of  these  seven  county  superintend- 
ents has  a  supervisor  to  supplement  his  work,  while  his  seven  city 
school  associates  have  19  whole-time  and  3  part-time  supervisors  to 
supplement  their  work,  and  (6)  that  while  the  county  is  spending  only 
2.43  per  cent  or  less  than  2%  cents  out  of  each  dollar  of  its  total  school 
fund  for  the  direction  and  supervision  of  the  work  of  its  country  chil- 
dren, each  of  the  seven  cities  is,  on  the  average,  spending  14  per  cent 
or  14  cents  out  of  each  dollar  of  its  total  school  fund  for  the  super- 
vision and  direction  of  the  work  of  its  city  children. 


108 


County  Govbenmbnt 


IT 

Comparison  of  Rural  and  City  Scliool  Superrision  witliin  the  Same 

County 

Table  No.  3 


>. 

t 

>> 

3 

3 

o 

o 

o 
U 

a 
o 

O 

o 

O 

e 

■s 

^ 

•d 

a 

13 

1 

1 

o 
a 

> 

>> 

O 

o 

a 

* 

o 

ja 

^ 

O 

rt 

^ 

O 

O 

O 

OQ 

Number   separate    schools    per    superin- 

65 
110 

4 
32 

75 
150 

2 
16 

52 
104 

3 
35 

76 
174 

2 

Number  white  teachers  per  superintendent. 

15 

Per  cent  white  teachers  college  graduates.. 

20 

90 

35 

50 

49 

17 

40 

Per  cent  teachers  teaching  first  session 

14 

0 

20 

31 

10 

3 

9 

6 

Per  cent  teachers  teaching  as  many  as 

three  years  in  same  school  or  grade 

12.5 

67 

5 

2 

51 

50 

66 

50 

109 

180 

135 

180 

110 

170 

114 

180 

Per  cent  of  total  school  fund  being  spent 

2.6 

20 

2 

20 

3 

10 

2^ 

20 

Area  in  square  miles  of  superintendent's 

district - 

615 

1 

12.8 

895 

4 

390 

2.5 

488 

4+ 

Number  of  separate  schools  per  superintendent 

Number  white  teachers  per  superintendent 

Per  cent  white  teachers  college  graduates 

Per  cent  teachers  teaching  first  session 

Per  cent  teachers  teaching  as  many  as  three  years  in 

same  school  or  grade 

Length  of  school  term  in  days 

Per  cent  of  total  school  fund  being  spent  for  supervision. 
Area  in  square  miles  of  superintendent's  district 


82 

140 

15 

18 

20 
121 
1.8 
376 


7 
110 
60 
10 

25 
180 
12.5 
5.5 


93 
167 
19 

18 

11 

125 
2.75 
639 


185 
7.1 
6.7 


75 
164 
44 


14 
125 

2.1 
597 


9 

127 

85 

2 

90 

180 

5 

12.8 


From  tables  2  and  3,  above,  whether  we  compare  rural  and  city 
school  supervision  in  a  given  group  of  representative  counties  and  a 
group  of  representative  cities,  or  whether  we  compare  rural  and  city 
school  supervision  within  the  same  county,  two  conclusions  seen  inevi- 


In  North  Carolina  109 

table,  viz:  (1)  that  in  the  present  situation  the  country  child  is  not 
receiving,  nor  indeed  can  hope  to  receive  anything  like  equality  of 
opportunity  with  the  city  child  from  the  standpoint  of  having  his 
school  work  properly  directed  and  supervised,  and  (2)  that  while  the 
average  city  school  Is  probably  not  spending  as  large  a  proportion  of 
its  total  school  fund  for  the  supervision  of  the  work  of  the  city  chil- 
dren as  their  needs  demand,  yet  the  county  is  lagging  far  behind  the 
city  in  the  per  cent  of  its  total  school  fund  it  is  now  spending  for  the 
supervision  of  the  work  of  the  country  child. 

Of  course  it  may  be  contended  that  the  total  school  fund  of  the  county 
in  comparison  with  the  total  school  fund  of  the  city  is  small,  and  that 
if  the  county  were  to  spend  the  same  per  cent  of  its  total  school  fund 
as  does  the  city  its  present  short  school  term  would  be  appreciably 
decreased.  Hut  it  is  equally  true  that  not  one  of  the  counties,  as  a 
whole,  considered  in  this  comparison,  is  putting  forth  even  approxi- 
mately the  same  amount  of  effort  in  the  form  of  local  tax  for  the  edu- 
cation and  training  of  its  children  that  any  single  one  of  these  cities 
in  this  comparison  is  putting  forth.  And  until  this  shall  have  been 
done  we  may  continue  to  see  the  same  educational  inequality  between 
country  and  city  child  as  exists  today. 


The  Be^nning  and  the  Progress  of  the  Movement  for  More  Efficient 
Rnral  School  Supervision  in  the  State 

Clearly  realizing  the  urgency  of  the  need  for  more  efficient  supervi- 
sion of  rural  schools,  and  clearly  realizing  too,  that  no  one  man,  how- 
ever capable  and  well  trained  he  might  be,  could  ever  hope  to  meet 
this  need  in  any  adequate  way,  and  at  the  same  time  meet  the  admin- 
istrative duties  of  the  office,  public  sentiment,  in  many  of  the  progres- 
sive counties,  developed  for  the  employment  of  capable  and  well  trained 
women  as  rural  school  supervisors  to  supplement  the  work  of  the  whole 
time  county  superintendent. 

While  many  of  the  progressive  county  boards  of  education  felt  keenly 
the  need  for  a  closer  supervision  of  the  rural  schools,  yet  at  that  time 
they  did  not  feel  that  the  county  fund  was  sufficiently  large  to  provide 
the  entire  salary  of  a  whole  time  rural  school  supervisor. 

The  year  1911  marks  the  beginning  of  a  more  intensive  supervision 
of  the  rural  schools  of  the  state.  For  it  was  in  that  year  that  through 
the  generous  aid  of  the  George  Peabody  Fund,  three  counties,  Sampson, 
Johnston  and  McDowell,  were  enabled  to  begin  the  policy  of  employing 
rural  school  supervisors.  In  1912,  aid  from  this  fund  was  extended  to 
three  other  counties,  Northampton,  Alamance  and  Granville.  So  well 
did  the  supervisors  in  the  six  counties  demonstrate  the  meaning  and 


110  County  Government 

value  of  their  work  to  the  rural  schools  and  rural  communities  of 
these  counties,  that  even  after  all  outside  aid  had  to  be  withdrawn,  be- 
cause of  the  distribution  of  the  Peabody  Fund  to  the  colleges  of  the 
South,  these  six  counties  took  over  this  work,  appropriating  the  entire 
amount  of  the  supervisor's  salary  from  the  county  fund. 

This  progressive  movement  for  better  supervision  of  rural  schools 
through  the  employment  of  capable  well  trained  women  as  supervisors, 
which  began  in  three  counties  in  1911,  has  extended  until  now  the 
following  thirteen  counties  have  supervisors:  Northampton,  Lenoir, 
Harnett,  Halifax,  Scotland,  Chatham,  Edgecombe,  Richmond,  Guilford, 
Gaston,  Avery,  Surry,  and  Wake.  The  latter  county  now  has  two  rural 
supervisors  to  supplement  the  work  of  the  county  superintendent. 

TI 

What  the  Enral  Supervisors  Do 

With  probably  two  exceptions,  these  supervisors  are  devoting  prac- 
tically their  entire  time  to  supervising  and  directing  the  work  through 
all  the  seven  grades  of  the  elementary  schools.  To  make  their  tine 
and  effort  count  for  the  most,  the  supervisors  are  concentrating  the 
most  of  their  attention  and  thought  upon  the  following  vital  and  dis- 
tinctive problems,  viz:  (1)  increasing  the  efficiency  of  the  teachers 
already  employed;  (2)  making  the  rural  school  in  its  course  of  study 
and  methods  of  teaching  minister  more  directly  and  effectively  to  the 
native  interests  and  every-day  needs  of  the  country  children;  (3)  mak- 
ing the  school  meet  more  adequately  the  cultural,  and  recreational 
needs  and  interests  of  the  children,  and  (4)  making  the  country  school 
an  effective  community  center  in  the  life  of  the  people. 

First.  Increasing  the  teaching  efficiency  of  the  teachers  already  at 
work  in  the  county.  The  supervisor  is  spending  practically  her  en- 
tire time  out  among  the  country  schools.  She  visits  the  individual 
teacher  in  her  school  room,  remains  long  enough  to  find  out  at  first 
hand  what  the  teacher's  greatest  difficulties  are,  and  aids  her  in  over- 
coming them,  whether  it  be  in  a  better  organization  and  management 
of  her  school,  better  gradation  and  classification  of  the  pupils,  or  in 
making  out  a  more  economic  and  usable  program  of  her  daily  work. 
If  the  teacher  is  failing  to  get  the  best  results  from  some  particular 
subject  she  is  teaching,  here  again  the  supervisor  offers  her  service, 
takes  the  teacher's  class  in  that  subject,  and  through  a  demonstration 
lesson  shows  the  teacher  how  to  teach  that  particular  subject  more 
effectively. 

Through  this  personal  visitation  to  and  careful  study  of  the  needs 
of  these  teachers  individually,  these  supervisors  are  amply  prepared  to, 
and  are  rendering  the  county  superintendents  effective  service  in  mak- 


In  ISToeth  Carolina  111 

ing  out  and  carrying  into  effect  practical  programs  of  work  for  his 
group  and  county  teachers  meetings  so  essential  in  professional  train- 
ing of  the  teachers  of  his  county.  From  the  last  session's  report  of  the 
eleven  supervisors  a  total  of  141  group  and  22  county-wide  meetings 
were  conducted  for  the  professional  improvement  of  the  rural  teachers 
of  these  counties,  while  these  eleven  supervisors  taught  for  the  teachers 
in  individual  schools  562  demonstration  lessons. 

Second.  Making  the  rural  school  in  its  course  of  study  and  methods 
of  teaching  minister  more  directly  and  more  completely  to  the  native 
interests  and  every-day  needs  of  country  children.  Here  the  super- 
visor is  working  with  the  teachers  individually  and  collectively,  not 
only  that  these  country  children  may  acquire  more  quickly  and  more 
thoroughly  a  mastery  of  the  three  R's,  but  also  that  they  may  make  a 
practical  use  of  this  knowledge  in  understanding  better  and  appreciat- 
ing more  fully  the  life  about  them,  to  the  end  that  the  value  of  their 
own  lives  individually  may  be  enhanced  thereby.  As  one  illustration 
of  making  a  practical  use  of  the  book  knowledge  they  acquire,  last 
year  in  these  counties  in  which  these  supervisors  are  at  work,  many 
of  the  country  boys  were  organized  into  Corn  Clubs  and  Pig  Clubs, 
while  in  these  same  counties  583  girls  in  the  elementary  schools  were 
organized  into  cooking  classes  and  1,042  organized  into  sewing  classes. 

Third.  Making  the  school  meet  more  fully  the  social,  cultural  and  rec- 
reational needs  of  the  pupils.  We  are  coming  to  realize  more  and 
more  that  it  is  not  enough  for  the  country  school  to  give  the  pupils 
a  mastery  of  the  three  R's  or  to  show  them  how  to  make  a  practical 
use  of  this  knowledge  in  their  daily  lives  upon  the  farm  and  in  the 
home.  If  capable  and  ambitious  country  children  are  to  remain  in 
the  country,  becoming  intelligent,  effective  and  happy  workers,  then 
country  life  must  be  made  attractive  and  enjoyable.  And  the  country 
school  must  be  intelligently  considered  as  the  permanent  agency 
through  which,  and  by  means  of  which,  the  attractiveness,  and  de- 
sirability of  country  life  is  to  be  enhanced. 

As  a  practical  means  to  this  end,  the  supervisors  are  systematically 
working  with  the  teachers  in  the  organization  and  direction  of  school 
literary  societies,  school  music  clubs,  and  athletic  teams  for  the  boys 
and  girls.  In  the  eleven  counties  with  supervisors  there  were  last 
year  276  school  literary  societies  organized,  158  spelling  matches  and 
debating  contests  conducted  between  neighboring  schools;  74  school 
music  clubs  composed  of  the  larger  boys  and  girls  in  the  school  and  the 
men  and  women  of  the  community  who  could  perform  on  any  musical 
instrument,  and  including  a  membership  of  824. 

Fourth.  Making  the  school  an  effective  community  center  in  the  life 
of  the  entire  community.  Not  only  must  the  country  school  provide  in 
a  systematic  way  for  the  intellectual,  social  and  recreational  needs  and 


112  County  Government 

interests  of  the  boys  and  girls,  but  must  include  within  its  scope  the 
intellectual  social  and  recreational  needs  and  interests  of  all  the  people 
in  the  community. 

The  supervisors  are  working  in  a  definite  sort  of  way  not  only  with 
the  rural  teachers,  but  with  the  men  and  women  of  the  community  for 
a  successful  solution  of  this  important  problem.  They  are  working  to 
make  the  country  school  the  unifying  force  in  the  community  in  min- 
istering to  the  social  and  intellectual  needs  of  all  the  people  in  the 
community. 

The  practical  means  these  supervisors  are  using  in  attacking  this 
problem  are  spelling  matches  and  debates  between  the  more  advanced 
pupils  in  the  school  and  the  men  and  women  in  the  community;  the 
organization  of  School  Music  Clubs,  Betterment  Associations,  Country 
Life  Clubs,  and  Community  Service  Leagues,  composed  of  the  men 
and  the  women  of  the  community.  During  last  year  with  the  help  of 
these  supervisors,  there  were  organized  and  conducted  in  these  counties 
69  Country  Life  Clubs  with  a  membership  of  1,697  men  and  women, 
and  holding  64  meetings. 

VII 

The  Place  of  North  Carolina  in  this  Progressive  Movement  for  More 
Efficient  Supervision  of  Rural  Schools 

While  this  state  has  made  a  fairly  good  beginning  in  bringing  to  the 
country  child  something  of  equality  of  opportunity  with  the  city  child 
in  having  his  work  more  adequately  supervised  by  capable  and  well 
trained  rural  school  supervisors,  and  while  public  sentiment  is  being 
slowly  but  surely  aroused  as  to  the  imperative  need  for  this  kind  of 
service,  yet  it  must  be  recognized  that  it  is  a  beginning  only  that  the 
state  has  made  in  this  direction.  While  several  of  the  states  have 
probably  not  advanced  in  this  direction  quite  so  far  as  this  state,  yet 
it  is  also  true  that  several  other  states  are  far  in  advance  of  North 
Carolina  in  this  progressive  movement. 

According  to  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Education,  "In  at  least 
30  of  the  40  states  having  county  superintendents,  assistant  county 
superintendents,  under  one  title  or  another  are  employed,  the  number 
varying  from  one,  to  Ohio  with  its  88  county  superintendents  and  a 
little  over  500  district  superintendents. 

"In  Ohio,  since  1914,  the  county  boards  of  education  are  required  to 
divide  their  counties  into  supervising  districts,  no  district  containing 
less  than  20,  or  more  than  60  teachers.  In  each  supervising  district  a 
district  superintendent  is  appointed,  and  the  actual  supervision  of 
teaching  rests  with  these  district  superintendents. 

"In  West  Virginia  in  1915-16,  there  were  approximately  82  district 
superintendents,  or  supervisors,   while  in  Kentucky  during  the  same 


In  North  Carolina  113 

period,  there  were  200  supervisors,  a  portion  of  whom  were  devoting 
their  entire  time  to  supervising  the  schools  in  their  division. 

"In  Wisconsin,  the  Legislature  of  1915,  provided  for  supervising 
teachers  in  every  county  of  the  state,  one  in  the  majority  of  the  coun- 
ties, but  two  in  the  larger  counties.  In  the  77  counties  of  the  state 
there  were  employed  in  1915-16,  85  rural  school  supervisors. 

While  Ohio  is  employing  in  its  88  counties  500  supervisors.  West 
Virginia  82  district  superintendents,  Kentucky  200,  and  Wisconsin  85, 
North  Carolina  with  its  100  counties  is  employing  only  14  rural  school 
supervisors  to  direct  and  to  supervise  the  work  of  its  country  children. 

In  the  40  states  having  county  superintendents,  there  are  approxi- 
mately 2,820  counties  and  in  18  out  of  each  100  counties  assistant  super- 
intendents, district  superintendents  or  rural  school  supervisors  are 
appointed.  And  since  only  13  of  the  100  counties  of  this  state  are  em- 
ploying rural  school  supervisors,  it  is  seen  that  North  Carolina  has 
five  fewer  supervisors  per  100  counties  than  the  average  state  in  this 
progressive  undertaking. 

Conclnsion 

From  the  facts  presented  in  this  discussion,  it  seems  self-evident  that 
the  following  conclusions  must  be  drawn:  (1)  that  whether  we  con- 
sider the  rural  part  of  the  state  as  a  whole,  or  whether  we  consider 
any  representative  section  of  this  whole,  the  need  for  more  eflScient 
direction  and  supervision  of  the  work  of  the  country  child  is  impera- 
tive; (2)  that  in  the  comparison  of  rural  and  city  school  supervision 
the  country  child  is  far  from  enjoying  equality  of  opportunity  with  the 
city  child  in  having  his  work  adequately  directed  and  supervised;  (3) 
that  while  the  representative  county  is,  on  an  average,  spending  less 
than  two  and  one-half  cents  on  each  dollar  of  its  total  school  fund  for 
supervision,  the  representative  city  is  spending  fourteen  cents  on  each 
dollar  of  its  total  school  fund  for  supervision;  (4)  that  because  of  the 
njumber  of  rural  teachers,  the  number  of  separate  sdhools,  the  large  area 
over  which  they  are  scattered,  and  the  vast  amount  of  administrative 
duties  to  perform,  it  is  an  absolute  impossibility  for  the  county  super- 
intendent alone,  however  capable  and  well  trained  he  may  be,  to  meet 
the  needs  and  demands  of  country  children  for  adequate  direction  and 
supervision  of  their  work,  and  (5)  that  while  the  state  has  made  an 
encouraging  beginning  in  this  essential  movement,  yet  it  is  a  beginning 
only  that  it  has  made,  and  that  its  rank  is  still  below  the  average  state 
in  this  progressive  undertaking. 


114  County  Government 

CHAPTER  XII 
The  Evolution  of  County  Health  Work 

De.  W.  S.  Rankin,  Secretary,  North  Carolina  State  Board  of  Health 

Under  this  heading  I  wish  to  direct  your  attention  to  three  phases 
of  the  county  health  problem,  to  wit:  (1)  the  field  of  county  health 
work;  (2)  the  nature  of  county  health  work,  and  (3)  the  natural 
growth  of  county  health  work. 

The  Field  of  County  Health  Work 

A  permanent  and  large  field  of  county  health  work  rests  upon  due 
observance  of  two  important  principles  of  our  government.  The  first 
of  these  principles  is  that  which  provides  unrestricted  opportunity,  and 
the  second  principle  is  that  which  recognizes  the  wisdom  of  limited 
assistance. 

The  principle  of  unrestricted  opportunity  is  provided  through  the 
division  of  the  central  government  into  a  descending  series  of  smaller 
governments.  This  arrangement  permits  the  smaller  division  to  move 
forward  without  waiting  for  mass  movement,  naturally  clumsy  and 
slow.  A  state  without  waiting  for  national  prohibition  may  adopt  state 
prohibition.  A  county  without  waiting  for  state  prohibition  may  have 
local  option.  Just  so  in  the  field  of  human  conservation.  A  state  or  a 
county  need  not  wait  on  the  national  government  to  move.  Moreover, 
if  the  national  government  moves,  and  moves  as  far  as  it  can,  there 
will  remain  a  large  field  for  state  health  work.  And  again,  if  the  state 
government  moves,  and  moves  as  far  as  it  can,  there  will  remain  large 
opportunities,  with  correspondingly  heavy  responsibilities,  for  the 
county,  as  indeed,  will  still  be  the  case  with  the  individual  when  na- 
tion, state,  and  county  have  exhausted  their  resources  for  human  con- 
servation. 

The  second  principle  of  a  wise  limitation  of  assistance  makes  it  neces- 
sary that  the  county  shall  occupy  its  own  field  of  health  work.  For  a 
parent  to  do  for  a  child,  or  for  a  parental  government  to  do  for  the 
smaller  constituent  unit  of  government  that  which  it  should  do  for 
itself  is  to  cause  loss  of  interest,  apathy,  atrophy,  dwarfism,  paralysis, 
death.  Trial,  experience,  self-reliance  are  as  essential  as  food  to  sym- 
metrical development.  Parents  and  parental  governments  should  point 
out  duties,  encourage  utilization  of  opportunities,  and  assist  the  child 
but  not  do  for  it  those  things  that  it  should  do  for  itself.  There  is  a 
field  of  county  health  work,  a  field  of  health  work  which  only  the 
county  can  rightfully  occupy. 


In  North  Carolina 


116 


The  Nature  of  County  Health  Work 

The  nature  of  anything  is  best  appreciated  when  approached  through 
the  analytical  process.  Problems  of  social  physiology  and  social  path- 
ology are  most  clearly  understood  when  broken  down  into  their  ele- 
mental parts.  The  county  health  problem  is  best  appreciated  when 
resolved  into  its  elements,  into  units  of  county  health  work.  The  unit 
conception  of  county  health  work  is  represented  graphically  and  simply 
in  the  following  figure: 

COUNTY  HEALTH  WORK 


Control  of  Contagion 


Inspection  of  Schools 


Soil  Pollution  Work 


Life  Extension  Work 


Infant  Hygiene  Work 


Abatement  of  Nuisances 


Anti-Malarial  Work 


Anti-Tuberculosis  Work 


This  diagram  shows  the  units  from  above  downward  in  the  order  in 
which  we  in  North  Carolina  attack  them.  The  variations  in  space 
allotted  to  the  different  units  indicate  our  estimate  of  their  relative 
costs.  The  number  of  units  is  not  essential.  Sanitarians  of  equal 
standing  will  subtract  or  add  to  our  simple  diagram.  The  order  in 
which  the  units  are  placed  is  not  essential.  Sanitarians  of  equal 
standing  will  arrange  the  units  in  different  orders.  The  relative  cost 
of  the  units,  as  indicated  in  the  diagram,  is  not  essential.  Sanitarians 
of  equal  standing  will  re-arrange  the  budget.  The  detailed  plan  for 
dealing  with  any  particular  unit  is  not  essential.  Sanitarians  of 
equal  standing  will  have  different  and  equally  effective  plans  for 
handling  the  same  unit.  The  one  and  only  essential  in  this  concep- 
tion of  the  nature  of  the  county  health  problem  is  its  unit  structure. 


116  County  Government 

The  unit  conception  of  county  health  work  enables  us  (1)  to  attack 
the  county  health  problem  through  a  detailed  plan  and  with  a  definite 
object;  (2)  to  attack  the  county  health  problem  effectively  either  in 
part  or  as  a  whole;  (3)  to  cut  the  garment  to  fit  the  cloth,  or  to 
plan  our  county  work  to  fit  the  available  resources  of  the  county. 

The  Natural  Growth  of  County  Health  Work 

The  aforestated  conception  of  the  nature  of  county  health  work  would 
lead  us  to  expect  its  natural  growth  to  be  by  units.  Moreover,  the  past 
development  of  county  health  work  and  the  present  direction  of  its 
growth  indicate  the  first  stage  as — 

The  Optional  Unit  of  County  Health  Work 

This  first  stage  in  the  growth  of  county  health  work  has  been  going 
on,  rather  vigorously,  I  think,  we  might  say,  since  1911.  During  the 
last  six  years  nearly  all  the  counties  of  the  South  have  made  appro- 
priations to  be  expended  on  a  unit  of  work  directed,  first,  against 
hookworm  disease,  and  later,  the  larger  phase  of  that  problem,  soil 
pollution.  Counties  in  the  South  have  probably  expended  something 
like  $1,000,000  on  this  unit.  Counties  in  one  state  have  expended 
$13,000  in  the  last  two  years  on  a  unit  of  typhoid  vaccination  (not 
shown  in  the  diagram)  and  in  this  way  have  vaccinated  128,000 
people  at  an  average  cost  to  the  county  of  approximately  10  cents  a 
vaccination.  Another  unit  that  has  been  successfully  carried  out  is  a 
medical  inspection  of  schools  unit.  A  unit  of  county  control  of  con- 
tagions has  been  tried  successfully.  A  unit  of  life  extension  work, 
similar  to  the  work  of  the  Life  Extension  Institute  in  New  York  for 
the  employees  of  large  corporations,  is  being  attempted,  and  so  far 
with  encouraging  results. 

In  the  development  of  county  health  work  on  the  optional  unit  basis, 
the  state  health  authorities  proceed  as  follows:  First,  an  entity  or 
unit  of  county  health  work  is  selected,  a  plan  for  dealing  with  the  unit, 
complete  in  every  detail,  including  necessary  literature,  illustrated 
lectures,  press  articles,  forms,  necessary  time  to  finish,  force  of  work- 
ers needed,  and  budget  is  prepared;  Second,  the  state  authorities  then 
propose  to  a  county  that  for  a  definite  appropriation,  usually  75  or  80 
per  cent  of  the  actual  cost  of  the  unit,  amounting  to  from  $200  to 
$2,000,  they  will  carry  into  effect  the  plan  of  work  as  submitted; 
Third,  the  state  authorities  are  responsible  to  the  county  and  the  work 
is  therefore  supervised  by  the  state  and  carried  out  by  employees  of 
the  state. 


In  Noeth  Carolina  117 

The  Prescribed  Unit  of  County  Health  Work 

The  general  assembly  of  a  state  in  which  the  counties  had  been  using 
two  optional  units  of  county  health  work  recently  made  the  optional 
units  prescribed  units  for  all  the  counties.  The  work  prescribed  for 
the  county  is  carefully  detailed  and  the  county  is  required  to  pay  a 
definite  sum  on  certification  from  the  state  oflScers  that  the  local 
official  has  satisfactorily  performed  his  duties.  This  legislative  trans- 
formation of  the  optional  into  a  prescribed  unit  of  health  work  appears 
to  be  the  most  natural  course  the  development  of  county  health  work 
could  take  and  will  take. 

The  County  Health  Department 

The  county  health  department  will  be  the  third  and  last  stage  in  the 
development  of  county  health  work.  This  stage  of  growth  will  be 
reached  when  the  prescribed  plus  the  optional  units  of  work,  for  which 
the  county  has  become  responsible,  require  a  permanent  force  of  work- 
ers and  necessitate  an  annual  budget  amounting  to  at  least  $3,500.  A 
county  department  of  health  developed  as  an  outgrowth  of  the  unit 
plan  of  work  would  naturally  possess  the  carefully  detailed  plans,  the 
definiteness  of  object  and  the  well  thought  out  budget  of  the  unit 
principle. 

The  county  department  of  health  should  not  be  confused  with  the 
whole  time  county  health  officer  idea.  There  are  two  important  differ- 
ences: First,  in  the  whole  time  county  health  officer  idea  the  dominant 
thought  is  an  official;  in  the  county  health  department  idea  the  domi- 
nant thought  is  a  plan  of  work.  The  whole  time  county  health  officer 
idea  does  not  necessarily,  and,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  does  not  nine  times 
in  ten,  include  a  plan  of  procedure.  The  county  health  department 
idea  starts  out  with  a  comprehensive  and  detailed  plan  of  work  which 
includes,  as  an  essential  part,  a  properly  qualified  and  paid  health 
officer.  Second,  the  whole  time  county  health  officer  receives  from 
$6  to  $7  a  day  for  his  services  and  devotes  from  35  to  60  per  cent  of 
his  time  to  work  that  can  just  as  well  be  carried  on  by  clerical  help 
that  can  be  obtained  for  from  $2  to  |3  a  day.  The  county  health  de- 
partment plan  prevents  waste  of  this  kind  by  providing  adequate 
clerical  assistance. 

Accelerating  Natural  Growth 

There  are  two  ways  of  accelerating  growth:  fertilization  and  culti- 
vation. 

The  fertilizer  for  county  health  work  is  a  county  subsidy.  To  illus- 
trate the  application:  In  a  certain  state  there  are  in  process  of  estab- 
lishment ten  county  health  departments.    Five  of  the  ten  are  manned 


118  County  Government 

and  in  operation.  These  departments  are  planned  on  the  unit  basis 
and  are  maintained  on  an  annual  budget  of  $6,000  a  year.  Of  this 
amount,  50  per  cent  during  the  first  year  is  contributed  jointly  by  the 
State  Board  of  Health  and  the  International  Health  Board;  40  per 
cent  during  the  second  year  is  contributed  by  these  assisting  agencies, 
and  25  per  cent  during  the  third  year.  During  the  fourth  year,  and 
after,  the  county  pays  the  entire  cost.  The  plan  has  become  suffi- 
ciently well  rooted  to  withstand  both  the  cold  of  public  indifference 
and  the  heat  of  political  friction.  The  county  subsidy  is  the  fertilizer 
for  county  health  work — for  county  health  work  in  any  of  its  three 
stages  of  growth. 

But  cultivation  is  even  more  necessary  for  growth  than  fertilization. 
This  applies  to  the  growth  of  the  seed  of  conduct,  ideas,  as  well  as  to 
the  growth  of  the  seed  of  vegetation;  and  it  applies  to  the  growth  of 
the  seed  in  that  higher  transformation  of  dust  that  we  call  brain  as 
well  as  to  the  growth  of  the  seed  in  the  dust  that  we  call  soil.  The 
place  of  the  subsoiler,  the  plow,  the  harrow,  the  cultivator,  the  hoe,  in 
the  cultivation  of  the  seed  of  vegetation  must  be  taken  in  the  cultiva- 
tion of  the  seed  of  sanitary  conduct  by  the  health  bulletin,  pamphlets 
and  leaflets  on  preventable  diseases,  health  exhibits,  health  press 
service,  and  health  lectures. 

"Behold  a  sower  went  forth  to  sow."  Some  seed  fell  by  the  way- 
side, some  in  stony  places,  some  among  thorns.  Others  in  good  ground. 
The  hard  places  by  the  wayside,  the  hardheaded  indifference  and  con- 
servatism of  the  backward-looking  people  must  be  broken  up,  agitated, 
softened,  for  the  reception  of  new  ideas.  The  shallow  soil  of  stony 
places,  the  effervescent  enthusiast  who  gets  religion  quickly,  who 
promises  all  and  produces  nothing,  must  be  made  to  think  deeper. 
The  thorns,  the  antivivisectionist,  the  antivaccinationist,  and  other 
faddists — noxious  plants — must  be  dug  up  and  not  allowed  to  take 
away  the  nourishment  from  useful  plants.  The  good  ground  that 
produces  sixty-fold  must  be  agitated  and  cultivated  until  it  produces  a 
hundred-fold. 

To  conclude:  The  rate  of  growth  of  county  health  work  will  depend 
on  (1)  the  way  you  fertilize  or  subsidize  it;  (2)  the  way  you  cultivate 
sanitary  ideas,  the  way  you  till  the  soil  of  public  thought. 


In  IToRTH  Carolina  119 


CHAPTER  XIII 
County  Health  Work  in  North  Carohna 

De.  B.  E.  Washburn,  State  Director  County  Health  Work 

1.    Introdnction 

It  should  be  gratifying  to  every  citizen  of  North  Carolina  to  know 
that  his  State  Board  of  Health  ranks  high  among  the  health  organiza- 
tions of  the  nation  and  easily  leads  the  health  boards  of  the  South  in 
progressiveness.  This  position  has  been  attained  through  efficient 
leadership  and  the  fact  that  we  have  here  in  North  Carolina  the  most 
progressive  rural  population  to  be  found  anywhere  in  the  South,  and 
that  our  citizens  have  always  been  responsive  to  the  work  of  the  State 
Board  of  Health. 

The  policy  of  the  State  Board  of  Health  has  been  to  conduct  its 
activities  from  an  educational  standpoint;  and  it  has  learned  from 
experience  that  the  best  method  of  educating  is  by  demonstration. 
Performing  health  work  by  education  has  a  decided  advantage  in  North 
Carolina  due  to  the  fact  that  the  health  activities  of  each  county  are 
left  to  a  county  board  of  health  composed  of  the  chairman  of  the  board 
of  county  commissioners,  the  superintendent  of  the  county  schools,  the 
mayor  of  the  capital  town,  and  two  physicians  appointed  by  the  above 
members  of  the  board.  The  County  Board  of  Health,  to  quote  from  the 
state  law,  has  "the  immediate  care  and  responsibility  of  the  health 
interests  of  their  county.  .  .  .  They  shall  make  such  rules  and 
regulations,  pay  such  fees  and  salaries,  and  enforce  such  penalties  as 
in  their  judgment  may  be  necessary  to  protect  and  advance  the  public 
health:  Provided,  that  all  expenditures  shall  be  approved  by  the  board 
of  county  commissioners  before  being  paid."  This  very  wise  law,  en- 
acted at  the  instance  of  Dr.  R.  H.  Lewis,  former  secretary  of  the 
State  Board  of  Health,  enables  progressive  counties  to  provide  as  much, 
and  backward  counties  as  little,  health  protection  as  they  may  desire. 

The  growth  of  county  health  work  has  been  gradual  and  evolutionary 
in  character  and  is,  in  reality,  a  utilization  in  the  counties  of  the  ex- 
perience of  the  State  Board  of  Health  in  dealing  with  the  general 
health  problems  of  the  state.  Any  plan  of  county  health  work,  to  be  a 
success,  must  present  the  health  problems  of  the  county,  together  with 
the  best  means  of  solution,  to  the  people  in  a  definite  and  comprehen- 
sive manner  and  by  a  plan  designed  to  directly  reach  and  educate  each 
home.  Before  discussing  the  details  of  county  health  work  it  Avill  be 
best,  for  clearness,  to  point  out  the  individual  health  problems  of  the 


120  County  Government 

state  and  to  trace  the  development  of  the  work  already  done  towards 
the  solution  of  these  problems. 

2.    Health  Conditions  and  Problems  in  North  Carolina 

The  majority  of  the  people  of  North  Carolina  are  native  born  and 
live  in  the  country;  85  per  cent  of  the  population  being  rural.  About 
one-third  of  the  people  are  negroes,  the  greater  part  of  whom  live  in 
the  eastern  section  of  the  state.  Agriculture  is,  naturally,  the  chief 
industry,  the  manufacture  of  cotton  being  second  in  importance.  The 
death  rate  in  North  Carolina  in  1915  (the  last  year  for  which  we  have 
a  published  report)  was  13.2  per  thousand,  while  the  birth  rate  was 
33.4  per  thousand.  There  were  31,324  deaths  during  the  year  (18,721 
whites  and  12,603  colored)  and  an  analysis  of  these  deaths  will  show 
something  of  the  health  problems  of  the  state.  During  1915,  9,321  or 
nearly  30  per  cent  of  the  total  number  of  deaths  occurred  among  chil- 
dren under  two  years  of  age;  6,135  deaths  were  from  diseases  peculiar 
to  adult  life  such  as  cancer,  diabetes,  bright's  disease,  apoplexy  and 
organic  heart  conditions;  3,710  deaths  were  from  tuberculosis;  3,196 
deaths  were  from  soil  pollution  diseases;  and  853  from  the  acute  in- 
fectious diseases.  It  is  not  always  possible,  however,  to  deal  with 
health  problems  in  accordance  with  their  relative  importance.  Since 
health  work  is  entirely  educational,  health  problems  must  be  attacked 
in  such  a  way  as  to  give  the  maximum  results,  from  an  educational 
standpoint,  at  the  minimum  cost.  To  do  this  and  at  the  same  time 
demonstrate  to  the  counties  the  best  method  of  conducting  health 
work  is  the  object  of  the  State  Board  through  its  Bureau  of  County 
Health  Work. 

The  chief  opposition  encountered  in  doing  county  health  work  is  the 
fact  that  the  great  majority  of  our  citizens  are  ignorant  of  the  laws 
of  hygiene  and  sanitation  and  have  not  yet  learned  the  importance  of 
applying  them  in  their  homes  and  communities.  At  this  point  it  may 
be  interesting  to  note  some  of  the  difficulties  that  are  encountered  by 
rural  sanitary  workers.  Many  citizens  in  every  rural  community  are 
averse  to  putting  aside  the  fallacies  concerning  health  and  disease  and 
medicine  which  they  have  believed  and  heard  all  their  lives  and  take 
up  the  new  and  complicated  and,  to  them,  often  obscure  teachings  of 
modern  medicine. 

In  every  rural  section  there  are  many  people  who  do  not  know  any- 
thing at  all  regarding  the  nature  and  spread  of  infectious  diseases. 
They  still  believe  religiously  the  theories  that  were  beginning  to  be 
discarded  in  scientific  circles  twenty-five  years  ago.  Any  one  who  dis- 
cusses these  subjects  before  lay  audiences  is  forcibly  struck  and  often 
amazed  to  find  that  the  most  refined  and  educated  people  still  believe, 
concerning  public  health,  almost  the  same  things  that  the  most  ignorant 


In  JSToeth  Carolina  121 

hold.  For  instance,  many  people  in  rural  North  Carolina  and  in  our 
towns,  for  that  matter,  believe  that  a  gold  wedding  ring  rubbed  on  the 
eye  will  cure  a  sty,  and  that  ear-rings  improve  the  sight.  Then,  there 
are  those  who  believe  that  tuberculosis  is  hereditary,  and  that  the 
smell  of  a  horse  stable  will  cure  consumption.  Others  believe  that 
the  infectious  diseases  of  children  are  inevitable,  that  children  ought 
to  have  them  to  make  them  grow,  and  that  the  younger  they  have 
them  the  better.  To  many,  backache  always  indicates  kidney  trouble, 
cancers  have  roots  like  trees  and  the  roots  can  be  drawn  out  with  the 
cancer  if  proper  care  is  exercised.  Many  who  have  never  had  small- 
pox believe  the  disease  to  be  much  less  severe  than  vaccination.  Among 
our  best  and  more  intelligent  families,  who  should  know  better,  there 
is  the  belief  that  there  is  absolutely  no  danger  of  infection  from  a 
sick  child  until  the  doctor  pronounces  exactly  what  the  particular 
disease  is.  Then,  of  course,  nearly  everybody  (and  this  in  not  con- 
fined to  North  Carolina)  believes  that  whiskey  is  good  for  pretty  nearly 
every  ailment  the  flesh  is  heir  to.  Another  reason  for  opposition  is 
that  the  people  at  large  have  not  yet  learned  that  health  conservation 
produces  a  greater  monetary  return  than  any  other  investment.  Edu- 
cation and  nothing  else  can  remove  these  obstacles. 

3.    The  State  Board  of  Health 

Public  health  work  in  North  Carolina  began  with  the  establishment 
of  the  State  Board  of  Health  in  1877.  The  growth  of  the  work  has 
been  phenomenal,  as  may  be  seen  by  comparing  the  annual  appropria- 
tions for  its  maintenance.  This  appropriation  has  been  increased 
from  $100  per  year  in  1877  to  $2,000  per  year  in  1904,  and  more  than 
$150,000  per  year  at  present.  The  work  of  the  board  is  through  well 
organized  bureaus,  each  of  which  has  a  definite  activity  to  perform. 
At  present  there  are  the  following  bureaus:  Education  and  Engineer- 
ing, Vital  Statistics,  Quarantine,  School  Inspection,  Tuberculosis,  con- 
ducted in  connection  with  the  sanatorium,  and  a  Bureau  of  County 
Health  Work.     There  is  also  a  Laboratory  of  Hygiene. 

4.    Rockefeller  Sanitary  Campaigns 

During  the  development  of  the  State  Board  of  Health  and,  as  the 
interest  in  health  work  increased,  its  activities  have  extended  from  the 
state  at  large  to  the  individual  counties;  and  it  has  become  an  im- 
portant function  of  the  State  Board  to  act  in  an  advisory  capacity  to 
the  county  boards  of  health  in  assisting  them  to  conduct  their  activi- 
ties. Intensive  county  health  work  began  with  the  hookworm  cam- 
paign of  1910  to  1914  conducted  by  the  Rockefeller  Sanitary  Commis- 
sion and  the  State  Board  of  Health.    This  campaign  was  essentially  of 


122  County  Government 

an  educational  nature  and  during  the  course  of  it,  the  people  of  every 
section  of  the  state  were  reached  and  taught  the  essentials  of  disease 
prevention.  The  plan  of  the  campaign  was  to  establish  in  each  county 
free  dispensaries  for  the  examination  and  treatment  of  hookworm  dis- 
ease. These  dispensaries  were  widely  distributed  at  five  or  more 
points  in  each  county  and  on  one  day  of  each  week  for  five  successive 
weeks  or  longer  free  clinics  were  held  at  each  dispensary  point.  In 
addition  to  the  work  against  hookworm  health  lectures  were  given  on 
general  disease  prevention,  the  people  were  taught  the  best  methods 
of  constructing  sanitary  closets  at  their  homes,  and  shown  the  neces- 
sity of  providing  a  good  water  supply.  Literature  on  health  subjects 
was  distributed  at  each  point.  The  dispensary  plan  was  successfully 
operated  in  99  of  the  100  counties  of  the  state,  and  the  people  took 
advantage  of  the  opportunity  to  learn  how  to  conserve  their  health. 

As  has  been  stated,  the  dispensary  plan  of  work  was  mainly  educa- 
tional in  nature  and  the  chief  results  were  from  an  educational  stand- 
point. After  all  the  counties  had  been  reached,  the  Rockefeller  Sani- 
tary Commission  and  the  State  Board  of  Health  conducted  a  number 
of  community  demonstrations.  This  community  work  was  more  inten- 
sive than  the  dispensary  plan  and  was  conducted  by  selecting  a  smaller 
unit  of  territory  than  the  county  and  in  each,  in  addition  to  main- 
taining a  central  dispensary,  carried  the  soil  pollution  and  educational 
work  into  every  corner  of  the  community  by  house  to  house  visits. 
The  chief  result  of  the  dispensary  and  community  work  was  that  it 
proved  conclusively  that  as  small  a  governing  body  as  a  county  can 
deal  effectively  with  its  definite  health  problems  and  get  results.  This 
intensive  community  work  was  conducted  during  1913  and  1914. 

5.    County  Boards  Became  Active 

Following  this  intensive  work  the  counties  themselves  took  the  next 
step.  A  number  of  the  more  progressive  ones  became  interested  in 
health  preservation  to  the  extent  of  each  employing  a  health  officer 
for  his  entire  time.  To  do  this  the  county  provided  the  funds  for  the 
salary  of  the  health  officer  and  for  his  department,  these  county  depart- 
ments being  conducted  locally  and  without  connection  with  the  State 
Efoard  of  Health.  As  in  the  dispensary  plan  of  hookworm  work,  great 
results  in  an  educational  way  were  obtained  by  these  whole-time  health 
officers.  The  plan  of  work,  however,  was  greatly  handicapped  by  the 
fact  that  each  county  was  an  isolated  unit  and  had  no  coordination 
with  any  other  county  or  with  the  State  Board  of  Health.  Then  too, 
the  health  officer  in  the  majority  of  cases  was  not  provided  with  equip- 
ment or  assistants  to  enable  him  properly  to  conduct  the  health  work 
of  his  county.  These  things  prevented  concentration  and  the  full  de- 
velopment of  an  important  phase  of  health  work.    In  all,  the  following 


In  North  Carolina  123 

fifteen  counties  have  had  whole-time  health  officers:  Buncombe,  Co- 
lumbus, Davidson,  Durham,  Edgecombe,  Forsyth,  Guilford,  Johnston, 
Nash,  New  Hanover,  Pitt,  Robeson,  Rockingham,  Sampson,  and  Vance. 
Of  the  above  at  present  only  four  have  whole-time  county  health  offi- 
cers— Buncombe,  Edgecombe,  Guilford,  and  Sampson.  Four  others, 
Columbus,  Johnston,  Rockingham  and  Vance,  have  discontinued  health 
work;   while  the  others  have  established  health  departments. 

6.    Bureau  of  Rural  Sanitation 

A  number  of  the  counties  which  did  not  provide  whole-time  health 
officers  asked  the  State  Board  to  furnish  them  special  optional  units 
of  health  work  other  than  the  hookworm  and  soil  pollution  unit.  The 
desired  units  included  vaccination  against  typhoid  fever,  medical  in- 
spection of  schools,  quarantine,  and  units  against  special  diseases  as 
malaria  and  pellagra.  The  State  Board  of  Health  established  a  Bureau 
of  Rural  Sanitation,  and  any  county,  by  supplying  the  funds,  can  ar- 
range with  this  bureau  to  have  an  experienced  director  sent  to  the 
county  for  several  months  to  conduct  the  desired  unit  of  work. 

The  success  of  this  phase  of  work  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  the 
General  Assembly  of  1917  passed  a  law  requiring  every  county  in  the 
state  to  provide  two  of  these  units  of  work — Quarantine  and  Medical 
Inspection  of  Schools.  The  quarantine  unit  requires  each  county  to 
provide  a  quarantine  officer  who  works  under  the  direction  of  a  State 
Epidemiologist.  The  school  unit,  which  is  also  directed  by  a  full-time 
medical  officer,  provides  for  the  examination  once  every  three  years  of 
every  school  child  in  the  state,  and  also  provides  a  means  for  treating 
the  ones  found  defective. 

7.    Soil  Pollution  Campaigns 

In  1916  the  State  Board  of  Health  arranged  for  the  cooperation  of 
the  International  Health  Board  in  the  further  development  of  a  unit 
of  soil  pollution  work,  the  unit  to  be  conducted  on  an  intensive  basis 
and  from  an  educational  standpoint.  This  soil  pollution  unit  began 
in  Wilson  County  in  September,  1916.  Since  then  it  has  developed 
into  a  state-wide  plan  of  intensive  county  work  which  makes  the  soil 
pollution  unit  the  nucleus  of  a  county  health  department.  A  Bureau 
of  County  Health  Work  has  been  established  to  handle  this  work. 

8.    The  State  Plan  of  County  Health  Work 

The  Bureau  of  County  Health  Work  of  the  North  Carolina  State 
Board  of  Health  is  the  agency  through  which  the  state  extends  co- 
operation to  its  counties  in  organizing  and  maintaining  permanent 
county  health  departments.     The  bureau  was  organized  July  1,  1917, 


124  County  Government 

and  is  supported  by  funds  provided  by  the  General  Assembly  and 
by  the  International  Health  Board.  The  object  of  the  bureau  is  to 
demonstrate  the  best  methods  of  performing  county  health  work.  At 
present  it  is  possible  to  offer  cooperation  to  ten  counties  (nine  of  which 
have  already  been  selected)  upon  a  definite  plan  which  considers  in  a 
systematic  manner  the  more  important  health  problems  of  each  county; 
and  provides  practical  and  demonstrated  measures  for  reducing  the 
amount  of  sickness  and  lowering  the  death  rate.  The  outlined  plan  is 
to  divide  the  work  of  each  county  department  into  units,  the  more  im- 
portant units  being  concerned  with  the  prevention  of  soil  pollution  and 
its  attending  diseases  such  as  hookworm  disease,  typhoid  fever,  infant 
diarrhea,  and  the  dysenteries;  life  extension  work,  which  contemplates 
both  the  early  detection  and  prevention  of  the  diseases  of  adult  life,  as 
bright's  disease  and  nephritis,  apoplexy,  heart  impairment,  and  can- 
cer; the  quarantine  of  infectious  diseases;  prevention  of  tuberculosis; 
and  infant  welfare  work. 

Each  county  health  department  is  provided  with  a  fully  equipped 
central  office  and  laboratory  and  the  health  officer,  who  is  appointed 
by  and  is  an  official  of  the  State  Board  of  Health,  is  given  an  adequate 
corps  of  assistance  to  enable  him  to  give  as  nearly  as  possible  each 
unit  of  work  to  the  entire  county. 

In  the  soil  pollution  unit  (which  is  the  most  important  unit  and,  as 
a  rule,  the  first  to  be  taken  up)  the  plan  developed  in  Wilson  County 
is  followed.  Every  home  in  the  county  is  visited  by  a  field  inspector, 
a  sanitary  survey  is  made  of  each  home,  each  place  of  work,  and  each 
school.  An  opportunity  is  given  each  family  to  be  examined  and 
treated  for  hookworm  disease  and  other  diseases  due  to  intestinal 
parasites,  inoculated  against  typhoid  fever,  and  the  best  methods  of 
constructing  sanitary  closets  are  demonstrated.  'Illustrated  lectures  on 
soil  pollution  and  general  health  topics  are  given  in  each  community 
and  suitable  health  literature  is  distributed  in  all  parts  of  the  county. 

9.    The  Qnarantine  Unit 

The  quarantine  unit  is  conducted  throughout  the  entire  period  of 
work  according  to  the  law  enacted  by  the  General  Assembly  of  1917. 
The  conduct  of  this  unit  is  largely  educational  and  has  for  its  object 
the  prevention  of  the  spread  of  the  acute  infectious  diseases.  The 
school  is  utilized  as  an  important  factor  in  carrying  out  the  quarantine 
unit.  At  the  beginning  of  each  school  year  the  health  department  se- 
cures a  disease  census  of  every  school  in  the  county,  public  and  pri- 
vate. This  census  shows  how  many  and  which  children  in  each  school 
have  had  whooping  cough,  measles,  scarlet  fever,  typhoid  fever,  and 
smallpox;  also  the  children  who  have  been  vaccinated  against  small- 
pox and  typhoid  fever. 


In  North  Carolina  125 

Monthly  articles  on  the  quarantine  work  of  the  county  are  submitted 
to  the  newspapers;  as  are  also  the  name  and  address  of  each  case 
reported.  Diseases  are  required  to  be  reported  by  the  attending  phy- 
sician or  by  the  householder,  and  in  suspicious  unreported  cases  the 
health  officer  may  visit  a  home  and  investigate.  When  reports  of  con- 
tagious diseases  are  received  literature  on  each  particular  disease  is 
sent  to  the  householder  and  to  the  teacher  of  the  school  in  which 
the  home  is  located,  if  school  is  in  session.  A  record  of  each  case 
reported  is  kept  at  the  health  office  and  the  report  is  then  sent  to  the 
State  Board  of  Health.  The  health  officer  is  required  to  make  detailed 
monthly  reports  to  the  State  Epidemiologist. 

10.    Medical  Examination  of  Cliildren 

The  school  unit  is  the  enforcement  of  the  law  enacted  by  the  General 
Assembly  of  1917,  which  provides  for  the  physical  examination  of 
every  child  in  the  public  schools  of  the  state  at  least  once  every  three 
years.     This  includes  both  white  and  colored  schools. 

A  standard  individual  case  card  has  been  adopted  suitable  for  filing, 
containing  a  full  history  of  the  child,  such  as  date  of  birth,  age  at 
entering  school,  grades  repeated  if  any,  family  disease  history,  height, 
weight,  chest  expansion,  condition  of  teeth,  eyes,  ears,  throat,  and 
nutrition.  The  information  for  this  card  is  procured  by  the  teacher 
and  transmitted  to  the  health  officer,  who  carefully  considers  each  case. 

All  the  children  thought  to  be  in  need  of  treatment  for  any  defect 
or  diseased  condition  are  then  given  a  complete  examination,  at  which 
a  diagnosis  is  made,  at  the  health  office  in  the  presence  of  the  parent 
and  the  necessity  of  treatment  is  presented  in  a  personal  manner.  The 
budgets  of  each  county  department  provide  $500  per  year  to  aid  in  the 
treatment  of  children  whose  parents  are  financially  unable  to  provide 
the  necessary  attention. 

It  will  take  several  years  to  get  the  school  unit  properly  organized 
in  all  the  counties  of  the  state  and  to  get  the  best  medical  men  inter- 
ested in  the  work.  But  it  will  mean  to  great  step  in  North  Carolina 
toward  a  proper  conception  of  the  true  meaning  of  conservation  of 
child  life. 

11.    Life-Extension  Service 

The  life-extension  unit  is  closely  modeled  on  the  work  being  done 
by  the  Life  Extension  Institute  and  has  for  its  object  the  demonstra- 
tion of  the  necessity  of  periodic  physical  examinations  as  an  aid  in 
conserving  health.  The  tentative  plan  of  work  is  to  conduct  a  two- 
months  intensive  campaign  after  which  the  health  officer  will  set 
aside  one  or  more  days  each  week  for  the  examination  of  citizens  who 
may  apply  at  the  health  department.     During  the  intensive  campaign 


126  County  Government 

the  health  officer  is  assisted  ,by  a  specialist  from  the  State  Board  of 
Health;  and  the  first  two  weeks  are  usually  devoted  to  educational 
work  and  advertising.  Circular  letters,  handbills,  news  articles,  and 
illustrated  lectures  are  utilized  to  teach  practical  personal  hygiene 
and  emphasize  the  value  of  periodic  physical  examinations.  The  re- 
mainder of  the  two  months  is  spent  in  making  as  many  physical 
examinations  as  possible;  and,  in  order  to  faciliate  this,  branch  offices 
are  set  up  at  several  convenient  points  in  the  county. 

The  purpose  of  the  examination  is  to  detect  disease  in  its  incipiency, 
to  find  minor  defects  which  may  impair  the  citizen  and  decrease  his 
working  capacity,  and  urge  medical  attention  before  the  condition  may 
become  serious  or  permanent.  The  examinations  are  made  in  a  com- 
pletely equipped  oflace  and  include  urine  and  blood  pressure  tests. 
Usually  only  adults  between  the  ages  of  20  and  65  are  examined  and  in 
no  case  is  treatment  given.  Where  medical  or  surgical  attention  is 
thought  necessary  the  patient  is  referred  and  chooses  his  own  phy- 
sician. Twelve  to  fifteen  examinations  are  made  each  day;  and  in  order 
to  facilitate  the  work  each  applicant  brings  with  him  a  filled  history 
blank.  Each  person  examined  is  given  a  report  with  verbal  and 
printed  advice  together  with  suitable  literature  on  health  conditions  in 
which  he  is  interested. 

12.    Child-Welfare  Work 

It  is  planned  to  add  the  infant  hygiene  unit  at  the  beginning  of  the 
third  year  of  the  health  department.  The  purpose  of  the  work  will 
be  to  lower  the  death  rate  among  babies  and  young  children  by  educat- 
ing the  mothers.  The  health  officer  will  be  assisted  by  a  trained  nurse 
and  it  is  planned  to  secure  the  cooperation  of  the  physicians  and 
mothers.  An  important  feature  of  the  infant  hygiene  unit  will  be 
the  control  of  the  practice  of  midwifery  by  requiring  every  midwife 
to  register  with  the  health  department  and  obtain  a  license  after 
demonstrating  a  knowledge  of  hygiene  and  obstetrics. 

In  addition  to  the  outlined  units  of  health  work  the  county  may 
provide  other  units  which  may  be  found  to  be  desirable  or  necessary, 
all  such  units  being  conducted,  of  course,  under  the  supervision  of  the 
county  department.  In  the  same  way,  any  community,  town,  or  city 
in  the  county  may  arrange  with  the  county  and  state  boards  of  health 
to  have  its  special  work  conducted  by  the  county  department. 

13.    War  Against  Tuberculosis 

It  is  going  to  be  very  important  to  devise  effective  work  against 
tuberculosis  which  is  our  largest  single  disease  problem  in  North 
Carolina.  Referring  to  the  vital  statistics  we  find  that  3,710  of  the 
31,324  deaths  occurring  in  1915  were  from  this  disease.     This  means 


In  North  Carolina 


127 


that  12.2  per  cent  of  deaths  from  all  causes — about  one  death  out  of 
every  8 — are  due  to  tuberculosis.  As  yet  no  effective  means  has  been 
devised  of  combating  this  disease  in  our  rural  districts,  but  very  effec- 
tive work  is  being  done  in  our  towns  through  visiting  nurses.  There 
is  no  doubt  of  the  fact  that  the  best  means  of  educating  our  rural 
people  regarding  tuberculosis  is  going  to  be  through  the  agency  of  the 
public  health  nurse.  The  difficulty  confronting  us  at  present  is  the 
fact  that  properly  trained  public  health  nurses  cannot  be  obtained. 

14.    Conuty  Health  Departments 

Each  county  health  department  is  organized  on  a  three-year  plan  and 
is  under  the  joint  control  of  the  State  and  County  Boards  of  Health. 
The  State  Board  of  Health  assists  by  giving  its  experience  in  suggest- 
ing the  best  methods  of  conducting  the  county  department  and  also 
assists  financially  by  providing  50  per  cent  of  the  budget  of  each 
county  department  during  the  first  year;  40  per  cent  the  second  year, 
and  25  per  cent  the  third  year.  The  following  are  the  budgets  for 
each  county  department: 


First 
Year 

Second 
Year 

Third 
Year 

Health  oflBcer — salary 

$       2,100 
600 
600 
500 
140 
2,430 
100 
500 

$        2,100 
600 
600 
100 
140 
900 
100 
500 
400 

$         2,400 
750 

Traveling 

Clerical  assistant 

900 

Fixtures  and  supplies 

100 

Contingent  fund 

140 

Soil  pollution  unit 

900 

Quarantine  unit.. 

100 

School  work  unit— 

500 

Life  extension  unit 

Infant  welfare  unit 1 

100 

Totals. 

6,970 

5,440 

5,890 

The  following  nine  counties  have  made  appropriations  and  have  had 
their  departments  organized:  Wilson,  Nash,  Northampton,  Lenoir, 
Davidson,  Pitt,  Rowan,  Robeson,  and  Forsyth. 


128  County  Government 

CHAPTER  XIV 
Public  Health  Nursing  in  North  Carolina 

Dr.  L.  B.  McBrayeb,  Superintendent,  North  Carolina  Sanatorium 

Definition 

The  term  Public  Health  Nurse  is  intended  to  cover  a  field  of  nursing 
that  has  hitherto  been  divided  into  many  different  branches  or  special- 
ties. For  example,  we  had  at  one  time  the  tuberculosis  nurse,  who 
would,  as  you  would  expect,  confine  her  work  to  the  nursing  of  tuber- 
culosis cases  only;  the  infant  welfare  nurse,  who  cared  for  the  babies 
only;  the  obstetrical  nurse,  who  cared  only  for  women  during  confine- 
ment; the  prenatal  nurse,  who  only  looked  after  the  mother-to-be  dur- 
ing the  period  of  pregnancy;  the  school  nurse  and  so  on.  Other  terms 
were  visiting  nurses,  districts  nurses,  etc.,  etc.  It  was  found  out  after 
considerable  time  that  there  was  much  duplication  of  work,  ofttimes  as 
many  as  three  nurses  visiting  the  same  household  the  same  day,  and 
hence  much  loss  of  time,  energy  and  money. 

So  lately  it  has  been  found  better  for  one  nurse  to  do  all  the  work 
that  was  needed  in  the  house  she  entered,  and  the  term  public  health 
nurse  is  used  to  distinguish  this  nurse  who  visits  the  homes  of  all 
needing  her,  in  the  territory  assigned  to  her,  as  often  as  needed,  ad- 
ministering to  their  physical  welfare,  and  teaching  to  the  patient, 
family  and  neighbors  the  laws  of  health  and  hygiene,  which  for  all 
practical  purposes  are  synonymous  terms,  and  the  prevention  of  the 
spread  of  disease.  This  in  contra  distinction  to  the  private  duty  nurse 
who  administers  to  the  physical  needs  of  one  patient  only  at  a  time 
and  usually  at  the  patient's  home,  tho  the  patient  may  be  in  a  hospital, 
and  the  institutional  nurse  who  is  employed  by  a  hospital,  sanatorium 
or  other  institution  and  administers  to  the  physical  necessities  of  the 
patients  in  the  given  institution,  neither  of  which  latter  give  any 
attention  to  health  and  hygiene  or  the  prevention  of  the  spread  of 
disease  except  as  concerns  themselves  and  the  patient  they  have  in 
charge. 

Remnneration 

The  private  duty  nurse  is  remunerated  for  her  services  by  the  pa- 
tient or  someone  who  is  responsible  for  the  patient;  the  institutional 
nurse  is  paid  by  the  institution  in  which  she  works — and  the  public 
health  nurse  is  paid  by— but  in  the  language  of  the  street— "That  brings 
on  more  talk."     She  should  be  paid  by  the  health  department  of  the 


In  North  Carolina  129 

county  or  city  in  which  she  works,  but  in  many,  in  fact,  most  counties 
and  towns  in  this  state  a  health  department  does  not  exist,  and  so  for 
the  present  in  our  state  the  salary  of  the  public  health  nurse  is  pro- 
vided in  many  ways;  for  example,  many  of  the  large  corporations  pay 
the  salary  of  one  or  more  public  health  nurses  for  the  benefit  of  their 
employees.  This  is  especially  true  of  the  corporations  manufacturing 
cotton  goods.  In  other  places  the  woman's  club,  the  Metropolitan  Life 
Insurance  Company  cooperating,  takes  care  of  this  important  matter, 
as  in  Raleigh.  And  again,  some  philanthropic  women  form  themselves 
into  a  nursing  association  and  provide  the  salary  by  the  sale  of  Red 
Cross  Seals,  as  in  Greensboro.  Or  a  public  health  nurses  association  is 
formed  and  by  contributions  from  the  churches,  lodges,  corporations, 
city,  county,  the  sale  of  Red  Cross  Seals,  and  the  Metropolitan  Life  In- 
surance Company,  etc.,  provides  the  salary  of  the  nurse  or  nurses,  as  in 
Fayetteville. 

This,  however,  in  itself  is  done  for  the  purpose  (a)  of  supplying  a 
great  need  for  the  community,  and  (6)  of  teaching  the  community  the 
value  of  such  work  until  they  become  willing  to  provide  for  the  salary 
of  these  nurses  by  taxation,  the  same  to  be  administered  through  the 
health  department. 

The  Health  Department 

We  have  used  this  phrase  so  frequently,  it  seems  proper  that  we 
should  define  and  tell  how  constituted.  A  health  department  is  that 
department  or  governmental  agency  of  state,  county  or  city,  that  has 
to  do  with  the  health  of  the  citizens  in  its  jurisdiction.  The  State 
Efoard  of  Health  is  the  creature  of  our  Legislature  and  it  provides  that 
the  Governor  shall  appoint  a  majority  of  the  board  and  the  remainder 
shall  be  elected  by  the  Medical  Society  of  the  State  of  North  Carolina. 
It  is  claimed  that  the  State  Board  of  Health  is  farther  removed  from 
petty  politics  than  any  other  organization  in  our  state,  for  the  reason 
that  no  governor  during  his  term  of  office  can  completely  change  a 
majority  of  the  personnel  of  the  board,  nor  can  the  State  Medical  So- 
ciety during  a  like  period. 

The  chief  executive  officer  of  this  board  is  called  the  secretary  or 
state  health  oflBcer,  and  he  divides  the  work  into  bureaus  as  the  need 
appears,  appointing  as  the  head  of  each  bureau  a  chief,  etc.,  as  you 
have  heard  in  Dr.  Washburn's  address  tonight. 

Carrying  out  the  idea  that  is  so  strongly  entrenched  in  the  minds 
of  our  people  of  "local  self-government,"  the  State  Board  of  Health  ad- 
vises that  each  city  and  county  must  or  should  have  a  health  depart- 
ment. In  the  county  we  have  or  should  have  a  county  board  of  health 
which  is  composed  of  the  mayor  of  the  county  town,  the  chairman  of 
the  Board  of  County  Commissioners,  th-e  county  superintendent  of 
schools,  and  two  physicians  resident  in  the  county,  elected  by  the  three 
9 


130  County  Government 

ex  officio  members  just  mentioned,  the  idea  being  here,  as  in  the  State 
Board  of  Health,  to  divorce  this  body  as  far  as  possible  from  petty 
politics. 

The  executive  officer  of  this  county  board  of  health  is  or  should  be 
the  whole-time  health  officer,  with  such  assistance  and  assistants  as 
he  may  need.  Usually  as  a  minimum  he  will  need  a  stenographer-clerk, 
a  laboratory  technician,  some  or  several  sanitary  inspectors,  and  some 
or  several  public  health  nurses.  With  a  budget  such  as  has  been  de- 
scribed to  you  by  Dr.  Washburn,  all  this  can  be  provided,  and  the 
International  Health  Board,  financed  by  Mr.  Rockefeller,  as  you  know, 
thinks  so  well  of  this  that  they  are  joining  with  the  State  Board  of 
Health,  together  with  the  county,  to  finance  this  health  department  in 
ten  counties  in  our  state.  They  are  doing  this  for  the  purpose  of 
demonstrating  to  the  people  or  teaching  the  people  in  these  counties 
and  the  other  counties  of  this  state  and  other  states  the  value  of 
health  work  done  in  this  thorough,  efficient  and  comprehensive  man- 
ner, and  it  is  expected,  as  in  the  case  of  the  public  health  nurse  afore- 
mentioned, when  our  people  once  see  and  know  how  health  work 
should  be  done  and  its  necessity  and  value  that  they  will  take  the 
matter  of  financing  the  same  into  their  own  hands  and  carry  it  on  as 
the  other  governmental  functions  are  provided  for. 

Tuberculosis 

I  may  be  pardoned  if  I  seemingly  digress  from  my  subject  at  this 
point  sufficiently  to  outline  the  proper  handling  of  tuberculosis  in  our 
state;  and  this,  as  suggested,  is  only  a  seeming  digression,  for  the 
reason  that  the  public  health  nurse  comes  in  for  a  large  share  of  the 
duty  and  responsibility  in  carrying  out  this  program.  In  a  sentence, 
it  is  this: 

All  persons  who  have  tuberculosis  must  be  discovered  and  so  super- 
vised that  they  will  have  the  best  opportunity  possible  for  recovery 
and  so  that  they  will  not  at  any  time  become  a  menace  to  their  families 
or  friends  or  the  stranger  that  is  within  their  gates. 

In  carrying  out  this  program  we  must  have  (a)  a  state  sanatorium 
of  sufficient  size  and  with  sufficient  equipment  and  sufficiently  sup- 
plied with  money  to  care  for  those  who  need  to  go  there;  (&)  a  county 
sanatorium  or  hospital  in  every  county  or  group  of  counties,  where  the 
counties  are  small,  to  take  care  of  the  negroes  and  such  advanced  and 
other  cases  among  the  white  people  as  may  be  deemed  necessary,  and 
(c)  a  county  health  department  in  every  county,  and  its  whole-time 
health  officer  to  give  free  examinations  for  diagnosis  to  any  who  desire, 
and  to  others  when  thought  necessary  (this  comes  in  with  the  life 
extension  work  mentioned  by  Dr.  Washburn)  and  a  public  health  nurse 
to  go  into  the  homes  where  these  cases  are  found  and  teach — notice 


In  North  Carolina  131 

how  often  we  use  the  word  "teach" — teach,  teach,  teach — in  connection 
with  health  work,  and  teach  the  people  and  the  patient  how  to  prevent 
the  spread  of  the  disease,  and  how  to  so  order  their  ways  that  those 
who  may  have  become  slightly  infected  will  not  become  clinically  ill 
with  the  disease,  and  by  close  observation  notice  any  who  may  be  in 
a  condition  of  lowered  vitality  and  take  them  to  the  whole-time  health 
officer  or  their  family  physician  for  examination,  etc.,  etc.  This  will 
require  repeated  visits,  extending  over  a  period  of  years,  by  the  public 
health  nurse,  into  the  home  where  a  case  of  tuberculosis  has  been 
found,  for  tuberculosis  is  a  very  chronic  disease  and  the  incubation 
period  is  of  unknown  duration. 

Infant  Hygiene  or  Infant  Welfare 

Dr.  Washburn  has  told  you  of  the  large  number  of  children  who  die 
under  one  year  of  age  of  what  is  known  as  enterocolitis  or  infantile 
diarrhea.  He  has  told  you  that  only  one  disease,  in  all  the  long  list,  in- 
cluding accidents,  homicides,  etc.,  causes  more  deaths  than  does  entero- 
colitis in  children,  to  wit:  Tuberculosis,  and  I  am  using  this  as  an 
example  for  the  reason  that  it  is  here  that  the  public  health  nurse 
finds  one  of  her  greatest  fields  of  usefulness. 

The  public  health  nurse  should  visit  every  home  where  there  is  a 
new-born  baby,  frequently  during  the  first  year  and  occasionally  dur- 
ing the  second  and  third  year  of  its  life — that  she  may  teach — notice  I 
say  teach — the  mother  how  so  to  feed  and  care  for  the  baby  that  it 
does  not  have  this  disease.  You  notice  I  said  every  home,  and  I 
mean  that,  for  many  young  ladies  who  marry  and  become  mothers  know 
little,  yea  nothing,  of  the  things  needful  to  prevent  this  disease  in  her 
baby,  and  this  is  as  true  of  the  most  cultured  and  refined  as  it  is  of 
the  more  lowly. 

And  when  this  disease  does  occur,  the  nurse  must  needs  go  into 
that  home  and  minister  to  the  needs  of  that  baby  and  teach  the  mother, 
by  doing  the  things  herself,  how  to  prepare  the  milk  for  the  baby  as 
per  directions  of  the  doctor,  how  to  sterilize  the  bottles,  how  to  care 
for  the  nipple,  how  to  flush  the  colon,  how  to  bathe  the  baby  and  many 
other  things  that  the  mother  does  not  know  but  should  know  and  must 
know. 

The  Great  3Iiddle  Class 

Had  it  ever  occurred  to  you  that  the  two  extremes  of  society  have 
the  benefit  of  good  nursing?  The  rich  have  the  "private  duty  nurse" 
at  their  command  for  $30  per  week  and  expenses  and  the  poor  have 
the  benefit  of  the  institutional  nurse  at  their  command,  without  money 
and  without  price,  when  they  enter  the  charity  ward  of  the  hosiptal. 
And  let  us  be  thankful  that  these  hospitals  are  increasing  in  number 


132  County  Government 

and  usefulness  in  our  state.  But  the  great  middle  class,  who  have 
not  sufficient  wealth  to  enable  them  to  employ  a  private  duty  nurse  and 
yet  are  "too  proud  to  be  poor,"  as  we  sometimes  say — but  in  this  in- 
stance we  should  say  are  too  self-respecting — to  accept  charity,  and 
hence  must  go  without  the  kindly  ministrations  of  a  nurse.  It  is 
to  these  as  well  as  the  others  that  the  public  health  nurse  comes  as  a 
boon  and  a  God-send,  a  veritable  angel  of  mercy;  for  it  is  intended  that 
she  shall  care  for  the  needs  of  these  at  a  charge  of  50  cents  per  visit, 
the  visit  not  to  extend  over  an  hour — and  as  in  all  her  other  work,  she, 
like  the  Master,  teaches  the  people. 

The  Manufacture  of  Public  Health  Nurses 

Public  health  nurses  are  scarce;  they  are  in  great  demand.  The 
people  and  especially  those  of  us  engaged  in  public  health  work  are 
realizing  more  and  more  the  value  of  the  public  health  nurse.  And 
these  nurses,  imbued  with  the  philanthopic  spirit,  the  patriotic  spirit, 
the  desire  to  be  of  real  service  that  brought  them  into  health  work  and 
caused  the  great  majority  of  them  long  before  the  war  to  become  Red 
Cross  nurses — for  they  are  all  eligible — have  answered  the  call  of  duty 
and  many  of  them  are  "over  there,"  caring  for  our  sick  and  wounded 
soldiers. 

In  order  to  make  a  public  health  nurse  we  must  start  with  a  grad- 
uate nurse,  and  this  graduate  nurse  must  have  had  at  least  a  high 
school  education,  or  better,  a  college  education;  she  must  have  had 
three  years  training  in  a  good  hospital;  she  must  be  above  the  average 
woman  and  above  the  average  nurse;  she  must  have  a  strong  per- 
sonality; she  must  have  the  elements  that  mark  a  leader;  she  must 
be  able  to  teach,  and  in  order  to  do  this  properly  she  must  be  able  to 
speak  in  public,  and  as  is  the  case  with  all  nurses,  she  must  have  a 
character  above  reproach.  Given  this,  she  is  ready  to  enter  into  train- 
ing as  a  public  health  nurse.  At  present  the  course  is  given  in  four 
or  eight  months  and  consists  of  didactic  instruction  and  laboratory  or 
field  work.  There  are  courses  offered  by  the  University  of  New  York, 
the  University  of  Cincinnati,  and  the  University  of  Ohio,  also  courses 
at  Boston,  Richmond,  Louisville,  and  Chicago. 

And  we  are  pleased  to  make  the  initial  announcement  this  evening 
that  the  State  Board  of  Health,  the  University  cooperating,  will,  in 
the  early  spring  open  a  school  for  the  training  of  public  health  nurses, 
probably  in  Raleigh. 

Public  Health  Nurses  in  North  Carolina 

There  are  at  present  about  65  public  health  nurses  on  duty  in  our 
state,  supported  as  mentioned  above,  and  we  also  have  a  state  director 


In  N^orth  Carolina  133 

of  public  health  nursing  working  under  the  direction  of  the  Bureau  of 
Tuberculosis  of  the  State  Board  of  Health,  whose  salary  and  traveling 
expenses  are  paid  jointly  by  the  said  bureau  and  the  Metropolitan  Life 
Insurance  Company. 

In  closing,  I  desire  to  congratulate  our  state  on  the  work  that  is 
being  done  by  the  North  Carolina  Club  at  this  University,  and  may 
I  express  the  hope  that  the  members  of  this  club  as  they  go  from  these 
walls  and  enter  the  life  of  the  communities  in  which  they  may  elect 
to  reside,  shall  be  thoroughly  informed,  among  other  economic  and 
political  agencies,  as  to  the  value.  Importance  and  proper  organization 
of  health  departments,  including  public  health  nurses,  and  that  this 
information  shall  be  carried  to  the  people,  believing  that  this  is  con- 
sidered by  your  illustrious  president  the  best  form  of  extension  work 
that  is  being  done  by  our  great  University,  whose  extension  work  is 
conceded  to  be  the  broadest  and  best  in  the  Union.  He  truthfully  can 
boast  that  her  campus  is  bounded  by  the  confines  of  the  state. 

And  all  this  in  order  that  the  world,  and  particularly  that  part  of 
the  world  known  as  North  Carolina,  may  be  made  safe  for  her  people. 


134  County  Government 


CHAPTER  XV 
The  County-wide  School  System  of  North  Carolina 

Washington  Catlett,  County  Superintendent  of  Schools  in  New 
Hanover  County 

It  is  needless  to  say  that  I  esteem  it  a  very  great  honor  to  be  invited 
to  appear  before  the  distinguished  scholars  of  the  University.  It  is  an 
especial  privilege  to  be  able  to  present  to  the  North  Carolina  Club  infor- 
mation which  may  be  useful  in  studying  any  of  the  great  problems  of 
the  day,  particularly  those  pertaining  to  education.  I  think  it  is  a  most 
healthful  sign  when  our  young  men,  and  our  old  ones  too,  are  getting 
facts  at  first  hand  in  order  to  draw  conclusions  intelligently  and 
reliably. 

I  am  invited  to  read  a  twenty-minute  paper  on  the  county-wide  school 
system.  I  suppose  I  was  selected  not  because  of  my  ability,  but  simply 
because  I  have  been  particeps  operis  in  this  system  as  existing  in  New 
Hanover  County.  I  shall  avoid  statistics  because  sometimes  nothing 
lies  with  more  wanton  indifference  than  statistics  unless  it  be  the  news- 
papers or,  as  Bismarck  declared,  the  telegraph. 

Perhaps  it  will  be  well,  first,  to  state  what  is  a  county-wide  school 
system. 

I  shall  quote  from  Bulletin  No.  44  of  the  year  1914,  U.  S.  Bureau  of 
Education,  by  Mr.  A.  C.  Monohan.  It  says:  "There  are  three  distinct 
units  of  organization  found  in  the  United  States:  the  district,  the  town- 
ship, and  the  county."  Again  it  says:  "A  unit  of  organization  for  the 
administration  of  schools  is  the  territory  in  which  the  schools  consti- 
tuting one  system  are  under  the  direct  management  and  control  of  a 
single  board — a  county  board  in  the  county  unit,  a  township  board 
in  the  township  unit,  a  district  board  in  the  district  unit,  or  a  city  board 
in  the  city  unit." 

Strange  to  say,  the  district  system  has  been  most  largely  used  in  the 
past,  and  is  now  the  subject  of  general  criticism  and  objection.  Let  us 
see.    I  shall  read  from  the  bulletin  already  mentioned: 

"The  district  organization  for  present-day  conditions  proves  for  most 
parts  of  the  country  unsatisfactory  in  many  ways,  which  may  be  sum- 
marized as  follows:  (1)  It  fails  to  recognize  that  education  is  not  only 
a  matter  of  local  interest,  but  a  matter  of  county  and  state  interest. 
People  no  longer  remain  as  much  as  they  formerly  did  in  the  district 
in  which  they  were  educated  or  failed  to  be  educated.  (2)  Under  it  no 
rapid  and  uniform  state-wide  advancement  is  possible.  (3)  It  has 
created  too  many  school  districts,  some  of  which  are  well  able  to  sup- 


In  North  Carolina  135 

port  schools,  others  are  not;  in  much  of  the  country  one-half  as  many 
schools  would  be  sufficient  to  meet  the  requirement  of  'a  school  within 
walking  distance  of  every  home.'  Great  difficulty,  however,  is  experi- 
enced in  persuading  districts  to  unite  into  larger  consolidated  districts, 
each  supporting  one  school  instead  of  several.  This  difficulty  is  due 
often  to  jealousy  existing  between  the  neighboring  districts  and  to 
jealousy  between  school  trustees.  The  movement  for  consolidation  has 
made  little  progress  in  any  states  except  those  with  county  or  township 
systems.  (4)  With  the  district  system  it  is  often  difficult  to  secure 
competent  trustees.  Many  trustees  are  necessary,  and  they  must  be 
residents  of  the  district  they  represent.  Certain  districts  will  contain 
many  men  thoroughly  competent  to  serve  as  school  trustees,  others 
will  contain  none.  The  district  system  means  that  there  are  in  the 
rural  schools  practically  three  times  as  many  trustees  as  school  teachers. 
To  attempt  to  manage  any  other  business  but  education  on  such  a  basis 
would  seem  ridiculous.  (5)  The  cost  of  maintaining  district  schools  is 
high  in  proportion  to  the  cost  of  other  schools  and  in  proportion  to  the 
results  obtained.  (6)  With  this  system,  opportunities  for  high-school 
education  are  presented  only  with  great  difficulty;  therefore  country 
boys  and  girls  are  required  to  go  to  city  schools  after  completing  the 
work  given  in  the  rural  schools  near  their  homes,  if  they  are  to  receive 
any  further  education.  Only  those  whose  parents  can  afford  to  pay 
tuition,  traveling  expenses,  and  usually  board,  are  given  this  oppor- 
tunity; and  few  of  those  educated  in  the  city  school  ever  return  to  rural 
occupations.  (7)  Any  adequate  supervision  of  the  instructional  work 
in  the  district  school  is  almost  impossible.  In  practically  all  states 
with  the  district  systems  county  superintendents  are  employed.  The 
county  superintendents  must  work  with  as  many  boards  of  education 
as  there  are  separate  districts;  with  the  district  system  the  large  number 
of  trustees  makes  his  work  difficult.  (8)  In  very  few  states  with  the 
district  system  are  assistants  to  the  county  superintendents  employed; 
there  are  no  county  educational  authorities  to  employ  assistants,  or 
none  with  enough  interest  in  the  school  affairs  of  the  entire  county  to 
care  whether  or  not  assistants  should  be  employed.  In  the  states  with 
the  county  system  such  assistants  are  more  plentiful." 

The  County-Unit  Plan  Recommended 

The  United  States  Department  of  Education  has  recommended  cer- 
tain essentials  of  the  county-unit  plan  for  the  administration  of  rural 
schools,  as  follows: 

1.  The  county  the  unit  of  taxation  and  administration  of  schools 
(except  that,  in  administration,  independent  city  districts  employing  a 
superintendent  would  not  be  included). 


136  County  Government 

2.  A  county-school  tax  levied  on  all  taxable  property  in  the  county, 
covered  into  the  county  treasury,  and  divided  between  the  independent 
city  districts  and  the  rest  of  the  county  on  a  basis  of  the  school  popu- 
lation. 

3.  The  county-school  funds,  including  those  raised  by  taxation  and 
those  received  from  the  state,  expended  in  such  a  way  as  would  as 
nearly  as  possible  insure  equal  educational  opportunities  in  all  parts 
of  the  county,  regardless  of  the  amount  raised  in  any  particular  part. 
(Any  subdistrict  should  be  permitted  to  raise,  by  taxation  or  otherwise, 
additional  funds  to  supplement  the  county  funds,  provided  the  sub- 
district  desired  a  better  school  plant,  additional  equipment,  or  a  more 
efficient  teaching  force  than  could  be  provided  from  the  county  funds.) 

4.  A  county  board  of  education,  in  which  is  vested  the  administration 
of  the  public  schools  of  the  county  (except  those  in  independent  city 
districts),  composed  of  from  five  to  nine  persons,  elected  or  appointed 
from  the  county  at  large;  the  board  to  be  nonpartisan;  the  term  of 
office  to  be  at  least  five  years,  and  the  terms  arranged  so  that  not  more 
than  one-fifth  would  expire  in  any  one  year. 

5.  A  county  superintendent  of  schools,  a  professional  educator, 
selected  by  the  county  board  of  education,  from  within  or  without  the 
county  or  state,  for  a  long  term  (at  least  two  years),  who  shall  serve 
as  the  secretary  and  executive  officer  of  the  county  board  and  as  such 
be  the  recognized  head  of  the  public  schools  in  the  county  (except  those 
in  independent  city  districts). 

6.  District  trustees  in  each  subdistrict  of  the  county,  one  or  more 
persons,  elected  by  the  voters  of  the  district  or  selected  by  the  county 
board,  to  be  custodians  of  the  school  property  and  to  serve  in  an  advisory 
capacity  to  the  county  board.  The  expenditures  of  local  funds  raised 
by  the  subdistrict  would  rest  with  the  trustees  subject  to  the  approval 
of  the  county  board. 

7.  The  powers  and  duties  of  the  county  board  of  education: 

(a)  To  select  a  county  superintendent,  who  would  be  its  secretary 
and  executive  ofiicer  in  the  performance  of  all  of  its  other 
functions,  and  to  appoint  assistants  as  required. 

(6)  To  have  general  control  and  management  of  the  schools  of  the 
county. 

(c)  To  submit  estimates  to  the  regular  county  taxing  authority 
of  the  amount  of  money  needed  to  support  the  schools. 

(d)  To  regulate  the  boundaries  of  the  school  subdistrlcts  of  the 
county,  making  from  time  to  time  such  alterations  as  in  its 
judgment  would  sferve  the  best  interests  of  the  county  system. 

(e)  To  locate  and  erect  school  buildings. 
(/)   To  supply  the  necessary  equipment. 


In  North  Carolina  137 

(g)  To  fix  the  course  of  study  and  select  text-books  (using  the 
state  course  and  state-adopted  text-books  in  the  states  where 
action  has  been  taken). 

(h)  To  enforce  the  compulsory  education  laws. 

(i)  To  employ  teachers,  fix  their  salaries  and  the  salaries  of  other 
employees. 

In  1914  there  were  nine  states  with  one  or  more  county  unit  systems: 
Alabama,  Florida,  Georgia,  Kentucky,  Louisiana,  Maryland,  North  Caro- 
lina, Tennessee,  and  Utah.  Those  with  a  semi-county  plan  were  also 
nine  in  number:  California,  Delaware,  Mississippi,  Ohio,  South  Caro- 
lina, Texas,  Virginia,  Washington,  and  Wisconsin,  as  per  the  United 
States  Bulletin  previously  quoted. 

It  will  not  be  necessary  for  me  to  describe  the  organization  of  the 
common  schools  of  North  Carolina,  as  you  are  all  familiar  with  it. 

The  New  Hanoyer  System 

New  Hanover  County,  while  following,  as  it  should,  the  rules  and 
regulations  required  by  law,  has  by  force  of  necessity  gradually  adopted 
certain  features  which  were  legalized  by  act  of  the  legislature,  ratified 
on  the  1st  of  March,  1913. 

The  act  to  enlarge  the  public  school  system  of  New  Hanover  County 
reads  as  follows: 

The  General  Assembly  of  North  Carolina  do  enact: 

Section  1.  That  the  Board  of  Education  of  New  Hanover  County  be 
and  it  is  hereby  authorized  and  empowered  to  maintain  and  support, 
out  of  the  public  school  funds  of  said  county,  the  Wilmington  High 
School,  which  shall  be  open  to  all  the  white  children  of  said  county 
under  such  restrictions  as  the  board  may  fix  as  to  grades  of  work  and 
other  qualifications;  and  the  school  committee  of  the  said  public  high 
school  shall  consist  of  the  joint  committee  of  districts  numbers  one  and 
two  for  the  white  race  of  said  county,  in  whose  names  the  donors  of 
the  property  which  is  now  used  for  high  school  purposes  have  placed 
the  title. 

Sec.  2.  That  the  Board  of  Education  of  said  New  Hanover  County  Is 
authorized  and  empowered  to  maintain  and  support,  out  of  the  public 
school  funds  of  said  counfy,  an  industrial  school  for  the  colored  race, 
which  shall  be  open  to  all  the  colored  children  of  said  county,  under 
such  restrictions  as  the  board  of  education  may  fix  as  to  grades  of  work 
and  other  qualifications;  and  the  said  board  of  education  may  elect 
three  school  committeemen,  as  other  school  committeemen  are  elected, 
for  the  management  of  said  school. 

Sec.  3.  That  in  lieu  of  making  the  apportionments  of  the  public  school 
funds  in  January  and  July,  as  now  provided  by  law,  the  Board  of  Educa- 


138  County  Government 

tion  of  New  Hanover  County  may,  as  soon  as  the  tax  books  are  made  up 
for  each  year,  estimate  the  amount  of  the  school  fund  for  the  current 
year,  and  apportion  the  same  among  the  respective  schools  of  the  county, 
first  setting  aside  a  sufficient  amount  to  maintain  the  high  school  and 
industrial  school  herein  created;  provided,  in  doing  so,  the  length  of 
term  of  the  other  public  schools  in  said  county  is  maintained,  as  pro- 
vided by  law.  And  at  the  end  of  each  school  year  the  said  board  of 
education  may  apportion  or  place  to  the  credit  of  the  respective  districts 
any  amount  received  in  excess  of  the  estimate  of  the  available  school 
funds  for  that  year. 

Sec.  4.  That  the  said  Board  of  Education  of  New  Hanover  County  is 
authorized  and  empowered  to  employ  a  superintendent  of  the  schools 
located  within  the  city  of  Wilmington,  and  also  a  superintendent  of  the 
rural  schools,  and  to  pay  each  of  them  such  salary  as  the  board  may 
deem  wise;  or  the  said  board  of  education  may  employ  one  superin- 
tendent, who  shall  supervise  the  entire  school  system  of  the  county. 
The  salary  and  expenses  of  such  superintendent,  or  superintendents, 
shall  be  paid  out  of  the  contingent  fund,  and  not  charged  against  any 
of  the  schools,  and  the  board  of  education  is  authorized  to  set  aside  a 
contingent  fund  sufficiently  large  to  cover  this  expense  and  other  ex- 
penses of  the  board  of  education. 

In  order  that  you  may  more  clearly  understand  how  the  system  was 
by  degrees  evolved,  it  is  necessary  that  you  have  in  mind  a  description 
of  the  county.  It  may  also  be  well  to  know  these  facts  in  order  to  judge 
whether  the  system  would  work  in  larger  counties  or  in  counties  in 
which  there  are  several  towns. 

New  Hanover  is  triangular  in  shape,  with  its  base  resting  on  Pender 
County.  It  has  the  ocean  as  one  leg  of  the  triangle,  and  the  Cape  Fear 
River  for  the  other.  It  contains  100  square  miles.  The  long,  sandy 
strip  tapering  to  the  apex  of  the  triangle  is  sparsely  settled.  The  ocean 
side  has  many  creeks,  emptying  into  the  sounds,  and  the  northern 
portion  has  swampy  areas.  This  renders  consolidation  of  districts 
difficult.  Many  of  the  rural  people  are  engaged  in  fishing,  which  takes 
the  time  of  the  larger  boys  during  most  of  the  year.  The  mildness  of 
our  climate  enables  the  truck  farmer-boy  to  work  the  year  around. 

New  Hanover  contains  the  city  of  Wilmington  with  a  population  of 
some  35,000.  There  are  no  towns  or  villages,  except  Winter  Park  and 
Delgado,  which  have  come  into  existence  within  the  past  17  years,  and 
which  are  practically  suburbs  of  Wilmington.  The  taxable  property, 
city  and  county,  is  $22,217,575.  The  school  tax  fund  is  about  $90,000 
in  round  numbers.  This  is  derived  from  the  general  property  and  poll 
tax,  and  a  special  tax  of  15  cents  on  the  $100  which  was  voted  by  the 
entire  county  in  the  year  1910.     The  school  tax  is  collected  with  the 


In  North  Carolina  139 

general  taxes  and  turned  over  to  the  treasurer,  known  in  our  county  as 
county  auditor,  who  keeps  the  accounts  of  all  county  affairs. 

The  city  of  Wilmington  has  nothing  to  do  with  collecting  or  dis- 
bursing a  cent  of  the  school  tax,  which  supports  every  school  through- 
out the  city  and  county. 

The  management  and  distribution  of  the  school  fund  is  the  distin- 
guishing feature  of  the  New  Hanover  system. 

The  county  is  divided  into  five  political  townships:  Cape  Fear,  Wil- 
mington, Barnett,  Masonboro,  and  Federal  Point.  They  are  divided 
into  school  districts.  Wilmington  city  includes  five  districts.  Each 
of  the  districts  has  three  committeemen  appointed  by  the  board  of  edu- 
cation in  accordance  with  the  state  school  law.  The  county  High  School 
is  situated  in  Wilmington.  It  has  two  committeemen  who  perform  the 
duties  prescribed  by  the  state  law.  There  is  also  in  the  city  the  Wil- 
liston  Industrial  School  for  Negroes,  with  a  committee  of  three. 

The  five  city  school  districts  are  under  the  supervision  of  a  city 
superintendent,  who  makes  monthly  reports  to  the  board  of  education. 
His  office  is  in  the  courthouse  with  the  county  superintendent.  A  clerk 
is  employed  for  the  service  of  the  board  of  education,  the  city  superin- 
tendent, and  the  county  superintendent. 

From  this  center  all  the  school  work  of  the  city  and  county  is  directed. 
Here  the  board  of  education  meets  monthly  or  oftener,  to  audit  the 
treasurer's  accounts,  receive  reports,  and  act  upon  all  matters  pertain- 
ing to  all  the  schools. 

When  the  tax  listing  is  over  and  the  valuation  of  all  taxables  is  given, 
by  which  the  board  of  education  can  make  a  fair  estimate  of  the  income 
or  yearly  resources,  a  budget,  prepared  by  the  city  and  the  county  super- 
intendents, stating  the  amounts  necessary  for  financing  their  respective 
schools  for  eight  months,  is  presented  to  the  board. 

The  budget  is  carefully  examined  by  the  board  and  changed  or  con- 
firmed as  may  seem  fit.  The  salaries  of  the  school  force,  from  janitors 
to  superintendents,  are  fixed  by  the  board. 

When  the  budget  is  thus  completed  by  the  board  each  committee  is 
informed  as  to  the  amount  set  aside  for  its  school  district. 

By  this  means  strong  districts  cannot  receive  more  money  than  they 
need,  and  weak  districts  are  provided  with  ample  school  opportunities, 
which  was  not  always  the  case  when  a  per  capita  distribution  was  made. 
The  needs  of  each  district  are  met. 

This  is  in  harmony  with  the  great  fundamental  principle  of  the  public 
school  system;  that  is,  the  strong  and  well-to-do  must  help  to  educate 
the  poor  man's  child,  the  child  of  the  state. 

If  a  poor,  sparsely  settled  district  cannot  afford  competent  instructors 
and  comfortable  housing,  such  must  be  given  them  or  means  provided 
to  bring  the  children  into  the  nearest  school.  This  plan  will  help  to 
solve  the  problem  of  keeping  people  on  the  farms.    Many  families  have 


140  County  Government 

left  the  country  for  the  town  or  city  in  order  that  their  children  may 
have  educational  advantages.  The  special-tax  district  smacks  some- 
what of  social  exclusiveness.  The  result  in  New  Hanover  has  been  that 
whenever  the  need  of  school  facilities  presents  itself,  the  hoard  has 
investigated  the  case  and  provided,  when  possible,  the  needed  school. 

By  bond  issues  for  the  whole  county  splendid  buildings  have  been 
erected,  and  the  system  has  enlarged  so  rapidly  that  another  bond  issue 
is  to  be  asked  for,  and  another  special  county  tax  recommended  to  meet 
the  growing  demands.  I  believe  the  people  of  New  Hanover  will  vote 
these  bond  issues  without  hesitation. 

Our  school  system  is  almost  a  commission  form  of  government,  the 
thing  so  much  discussed  and  recommended.  One  of  the  board  acts  as 
a  purchasing  agent.  Supplies  are  bought  by  the  wholesale,  thus  saving 
large  sums.  Deep  wells  have  been  driven  under  direction  of  the  board, 
assisted  financially  by  the  county  commissioners.  Specifications  are 
furnished  by  the  board  of  health.  Sanitary  closets  are  built  by  the 
school  board  under  approved  plans,  and  vaccination  and  medical  inspec- 
tion of  the  school  children  are  required. 

Where  the  county  is  large  the  difficulties  would  increase,  but  that 
simply  means  more  work  and  better  men.  Without  competent  oflacers 
any  system  will  fail,  and  the  best  system  under  poor  officers  will  be 
only  a  partial  success. 

No  other  school  plan  tends  more  to  unite  the  forces  of  the  entire 
county,  to  break  down  city  walls,  so  to  speak,  to  economize  efforts,  and 
consolidate  strength,  minimize  waste,  and  bring  about  efficient  and 
systematic  administration. 

Cities  are  apt  to  neglect  the  welfare  of  the  rural  sections.  Instead 
of  building  up  for  themselves  splendid  plants  and  letting  the  country 
folk  take  what  they  can  get,  the  whole  county  should  share  in  giving 
adequate  fajcilities  to  all  the  people,  town  and  country.  I  am  not  speak- 
ing of  the  school  administration  of  cities.  It  is  proper  that  cities  should 
have  their  own  superintendents,  because  of  the  large  number  of  schools 
and  children;  but  in  my  opinion  the  financial  and  administrative  de- 
partment should  be  under  capable,  representative  men  who  will  impar- 
tially direct  the  school  affairs  of  the  whole  county. 

I  have  said  that  the  special  local  tax  is  not  in  full  harmony  with  the 
fundamental  principle  of  public  schools.  The  state  school  tax  is  to  help 
the  weaker  counties.  About  ten  counties  pay  more  into  the  state  school 
fund  than  they  receive.  New  Hanover  pays  about  $11,000  more  than 
it  receives  from  the  state  treasury,  and  it  pays  the  excess  in  order  to 
give  four-months  schools  to  other  counties.  All  the  big  city  counties 
should  help  their  rural  districts  to  a  greater  extent  than  they  do. 

Every  cent  of  school  tax  paid  by  the  city  of  Wilmington  goes  into 
the  general  fund  to  be  distributed  towards  the  education  of  every  child 
in  the  whole  county. 


In  North  Carolina  141 

Special,  privileged  city  systems  erect  splendid  buildings,  formulate 
their  own  courses  of  study,  claim  certain  exemptions  for  their  teachers, 
and  administer  their  school  affairs  with  complacent  exclusiveness. 
Some  districts  are  tempted  to  impose  upon  corporations  which  exist 
within  their  limits.  I  once  heard  a  gentleman,  living  in  a  district 
through  which  a  wealthy  railroad  passed,  remark  that  the  railroad 
company  would  pay  almost  enough  to  build  the  schoolhouse. 


142  County  Government 


CHAPTER  XVI 


The  County  High  School 


N.  A.  Walker,  Professor  of  Secondary  Education,  University  of  North 
Carolina,  and  State  Director  of  Public  High  Schools 

Occupying  as  it  does  a  strategic  position  in  our  educational  system, 
the  public  high  school  has  come  to  be  the  criterion  by  which  the  effi- 
ciency of  the  schools  of  a  county  or  state  is  judged.  Given  a  system 
of  strong,  well-equipped,  efficient  public  high  schools  in  a  state,  and 
below  them  you  are  sure  to  find  a  good  system  of  elementary  schools, 
and  above  them,  too,  you  will  find  a  superior  class  of  colleges.  Given 
a  weak,  ineffective  system  of  public  high  schools,  and  below  them  you 
will  find  indifferent  elementary  schools  and  above  them  colleges  in 
name  only.  Strong  high  schools  mean,  then,  good  educational  facilities 
from  the  primary  school  through  the  college  and  university,  so  much 
so  that  we  can  measure  our  educational  progress  almost  exactly  in 
terms  of  the  efficiency  of  our  public  high  schools. 

North  Carolina  has  made  rapid  strides  in  high  school  development 
since  the  passage  of  the  public  high  school  law  in  1907.  There  are  at 
present  246  state  high  schools  in  operation  under  this  act,  with  an 
enrollment  of  about  11,000  pupils. 

There  are  two  other  classes  of  public  schools  doing  high  school  work, 
namely,  city  high  schools  and  local  high  schools.  There  are  80  of  the 
former  and  157  of  the  latter,  enrolling,  respectively,  10,000  and  3,000 
pupils. 

In  addition  to  these  483  public  high  schools — state,  city,  and  local — 
there  are  26  private  schools  and  66  church  schools  of  secondary  grade, 
enrolling  together  about  5,000. 

Thus  there  are  in  North  Carolina  575  secondary  schools  enrolling 
30,000  pupils. 

Not  quite  50  per  cent  of  the  575  schools  are  offering  four-year  courses, 
and  not  quite  10  per  cent  of  the  30,000  high  school  pupils  are  pursuing 
fourth-year  studies. 

We  need  to  develop  in  all  the  counties  strong  four-year  high  schools, 
sufficiently  well  equipped  and  financed  to  provide  for  the  needs  of  the 
youth  in  each  county  whatever  secondary  school  training  is  needed. 
The  local  high  school  cannot  meet  the  need  for  high  school  training  in 
a  modern  democracy.  It  cannot  secure  sufficient  money,  equipment, 
teachers,  or  pupils. 

The  county  high  school,  with  stronger  financial  backing,  larger  teach- 
ing  force,   better   equipment,    dormitories,    and    inexpensive   boarding 


In  North  Carolina  143 

facilities,  and  transportation  of  pupils  where  necessary,  must  take  the 
place  of  the  small  local  high  school  if  the  needs  of  democracy  are  to  be 
better  met  through  better  educational  opportunities  of  the  youth  of 
the  land. 

A  recent  decision  of  the  Supreme  Court  declaring  the  county  high 
school  (commonly  called  the  state  high  school)  to  be  an  organic  part 
of  our  uniform  and  general  public  school  system  required  by  the  Con- 
stitution, opens  a  new  door  of  opportunity  in  secondary  education  and 
makes  possible  a  new  era  of  high  school  development  in  North  Carolina. 


144  County  Government 


CHAPTER  XVII 

The  County  Library:  an  Agency  to  Promote  General 

Reading 

L.  R.  Wilson,  Director  Bureau  of  Extension,  University  of 
North  Carolina 

How  to  put  every  man,  woman,  and  child  in  the  country-side  to  read- 
ing books  that  inform  and  instruct  has  been  a  matter  of  serious  and 
general  concern  in  the  United  States  since  1900. 

In  the  main,  four  agencies  have  been  developed  and  employed  in  the 
attempt  to  make  this  nation  a  reading  and,  therefore,  an  intelligent 
nation:  (1)  The  Municipal  Library,  or  a  library  in  every  village,  as 
in  the  case  of  thickly  populated  Massachusetts;  (2)  The  School  Library, 
such  as  that  to  be  found  in  3,500  North  Carolina  schools,  with  a  total 
of  from  350,000  to  500,000  books  in  the  hands  of  the  school  children  and 
their  parents;  (3)  The  Traveling  Library,  operated  by  a  central  library 
commission,  and  going  into  every  rural  community  which  shows  suffi- 
cient interest  to  apply  for  service,  the  best  example  of  which  is  to  be 
found  in  Wisconsin;  and  (4)  The  County  Library,  established,  sup- 
ported, and  administered  by  the  county,  with  branches  and  parcels  post 
service  in  every  section,  of  which  California  furnishes  the  most  suc- 
cessful type. 

Of  these  four  agencies,  the  last  mentioned  is  least  understood  in 
North  Carolina,  and  is  described  here  for  the  consideration  of  North 
Carolinians  who  are  interested  in  the  development  of  a  citizenship  of 
readers. 

The  three  predominant  characteristics  of  the  county  library  are: 

(1)  It  serves  the  citizenship  of  an  entire  county  rather  than  of  a 
town  or  city. 

(2)  It  is  supported  by  a  direct  tax  (usually  not  less  than  I14  cents 
nor  more  than  5  cents  on  the  $100)  on  the  total  assessed  property  of  the 
county,  or  an  appropriation  is  made  by  the  county  commissioners  to  a 
library  already  established  by  a  town  within  it,  in  return  for  which 
books  are  made  available  to  town  and  county  citizens  alike. 

(3)  It  is  administered  by  a  special  library  board  which  may  receive 
lands,  buildings,  gifts,  books,  etc.,  for  the  use  of  the  library,  choose 
the  librarian  and  assistants,  determine  the  number  and  location  of 
branch  libraries  or  loan  stations  throughout  the  county,  or  contract 
with  a  library  already  in  the  county  for  services  to  the  entire  citizen- 
ship. 


In  North  Carolina  145 

Adyantages  are  Distinctive 

That  a  strong  centralized  library  thus  provided  for  affords  its  patrons 
distinctive  advantages  is  at  once  apparent.     These  are: 

(1)  It  has  financial  support  sufficient  to  provide  books  of  a  varying 
character  and  in  sufficient  quantity  to  meet  the  requirements  of  all 
classes  of  citizens. 

(2)  It  can  establish  a  unified  system  of  service  to  isolated  settle- 
ments, schools,  and  villages,  thereby  reaching  at  regular  intervals  every 
section  of  the  county.  A  book  wagon  or  automobile  can  be  run  on  a 
regular  fortnightly  or  monthly  schedule,  and  can  serve  every  local 
station. 

(3)  It  can  employ  an  efficient  librarian  and  assistants  in  sufficient 
number  to  administer  the  work  effectively. 

(4)  It  lends  itself  to  the  uses  of  other  county  organizations,  such  as 
the  board  of  health  and  board  of  education. 

(5)  It  promotes  unity  of  interest  and  cooperation  in  all  undertakings 
having  as  their  object  the  betterment  of  the  county. 

Agencies  Employed  in  North  Carolina 

, . '  '  '•'  I  -I  I  >  I 
In  North  Carolina,  at  present,  three  of  the  agencies  mentioned  above 
are  generally  employed.  According  to  the  latest  statistics  published 
by  the  North  Carolina  Library  Commission  (for  1917)  and  the  office 
of  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction  (for  1916),  49  towns  operate 
libraries,  4,102  schools  have  collections  of  from  85  to  125  books,  and  the 
North  Carolina  Library  Commission  has  7,500  volumes  in  114  traveling 
libraries  which  are  circulated  through  communities  in  92  counties. 

County  Work  Begun 

A  beginning  has  also  been  made  in  the  employment  of  the  county 
system  in  modified  form  as  indicated  in  the  exceedingly  interesting 
reports  below.  This  beginning  is  so  suggestive  and  so  worthy  of  study 
and  development  that  it  is  given  below  in  detail  with  the  hope  that 
other  counties  may  follow  the  splendid  example  set.  All  of  the  present 
agencies  employed  should  be  continued,  as  they  have  their  distinct 
place.  They  should  be  further  vitalized  by  a  thorough-going  county 
library  system.  The  summaries  here  given  of  the  work  in  Mecklen- 
burg, Durham,  and  Guilford  are  furnished  by  Miss  Mary  B.  Palmer, 
Mrs.  A.  F.  Griggs,  and  Miss  Bettie  D.  Caldwell,  librarians  at  Charlotte, 
Durham,  and  Greensboro,  respectively,  in  December,  1917. 

3recklenburg  County 

"Library  privileges  were  extended  to  the  people  of  Mecklenburg 
County  in  October,  1912,  and  were  withdrawn  in  January,  1915,  because 


146  County  Government 

the  County  Board  of  Education  decided  to  discontinue  the  annual  appro- 
priation to  the  library  of  $300.  Such  a  small  amount  did  not  allow  us 
to  send  out  traveling  libraries,  but  we  permitted  teachers  to  take  as 
many  as  twenty  books  at  a  time,  and  quite  a  few  managed  to  get  that 
many  to  their  schools.  I  realize  now  that  it  was  most  unwise  for  a 
library  with  our  resources  to  undertake  county  work  on  $300.  The 
county  people  read  over  7,000  books  during  the  time  the  library  was 
open  to  them.  We  are  still  doing  reference  work  for  the  county  high 
schools. 

Durham  County 

"In  April,  1914,  the  Board  of  County  Commissioners  of  Durham 
County  made  an  appropriation  of  $400  per  year  to  the  Durham  Public 
Library.  In  July,  1917,  they  increased  this  to  $600  per  year.  This  is 
too  small  to  do  more  than  admit  the  rural  residents  of  the  county  to 
the  usual  library  privileges  extended  to  the  city  residents.  However, 
a  special  privilege  is  extended  to  the  teachers  of  the  county  schools 
whereby  they  may  take  out  a  number  of  books  at  a  time  for  use  in  their 
schools.  The  teacher  acts  as  librarian  and  lends  the  books  to  the  chil- 
dren. The  number  of  books  and  length  of  time  is  determined  by  the 
needs  of  the  teacher.  This  method  has  proved  very  satisfactory  and 
supplements  the  school  libraries.  We  do  not  deliver  books  to  the  rural 
residents  but  they  are  often  returned  by  parcel  post. 

"We  cannot  do  any  special  work,  but  the  county  is  small,  and  with 
the  Fords  to  help  the  county,  people  find  the  library  very  convenient. 

Guilford  County 

"The  Greensboro  library  was  made  free  to  Guilford  County,  April 
15,  1915,  this  long  desired  end  having  been  accomplished  through  the 
cooperation  of  the  county  commissioners  who  appropriated  the  addi- 
tional income  to  make  such  a  step  possible,  payment  being  made  through 
the  County  Board  of  Education. 

"The  income  asked  for  was  $1,500  and  at  first  $1,250  was  promised, 
but  the  whole  amount  asked  for  was  given  as  soon  as  the  success  of  the 
plan  was  apparent.  This  fund  is  paid  to  our  treasurer  in  monthly 
installments  and  constitutes  the  book  fund  of  the  library. 

"At  the  time  the  measure  was  adopted  one  of  our  trustees  was  on  the 
point  of  withdrawing  at  the  close  of  his  term,  not  desiring  reelection. 
In  his  place,  to  represent  the  county,  the  city  appointed  the  Guilford 
Superintendent  of  Education,  who  fortunately  resides  inside  the  cor- 
poration limits,  so  that  our  library  law  was  complied  with. 

"An  effort  was  made  through  the  newspapers  to  notify  the  county, 
and  books  began  to  go  out  slowly  on  the  new  borrowers'  cards.  Six 
new  stations  previously  planned  for  now  received  the  books  most  cor- 


In  N'orth  Carolina  147 

dially,  the  postoffice  authorities  in  each  case  giving  cordial  cooperation 
and  free  service  as  librarians. 

"Cheering  reports  soon  began  to  come  in  from  these  stations,  and  the 
next  step  was  to  send  by  request  a  hundred  books  to  our  neighbors  in 
High  Point  who  agreed,  themselves,  to  furnish  a  case  and  to  distribute 
from  a  popular  drug  store. 

"This  station  at  first  was  successful  but  naturally  proved  inadequate 
for  so  large  a  place,  and  the  local  library  workers  there  thought  best 
to  remove  it  and  make  renewed  effort  to  establish  a  separate  library 
to  meet  the  needs  of  the  town. 

"Three  additioTial  stations  have  since  been  established,  two  in  stores 
and  one  in  a  home,  so  that  we  now  have  nine  stations  circulating  595 
books,  the  minimum  loan  being  50  volumes.  An  increase  has  been 
given  whenever  requested. 

Transportation 

"Cases  holding  50  books,  each  lettered  with  the  name  of  the  library 
and  of  the  station,  have  been  supplied  in  each  case  except  the  brief  loan 
to  High  Point,  and  the  station  kept  in  a  home,  the  former  furnishing 
its  own  case  and  the  library  supplying  a  two-section  Wernicke  for  the 
home.  These  cases  are  permanent,  but  two  packing  cases  were  also 
made  for  each  station.  They  are  made  to  weigh  50  pounds  each  when 
filled  with  25  books,  and  keys  are  kept  at  each  end  of  the  line.  The 
station  librarians  often  find  friends  to  furnish  transportation  free  of 
charge,  but  where  this  is  impracticable  the  library  pays  the  cost  of 
parcel  post  both  ways.  Individual  borrowers  in  the  county  can  have 
books  sent  to  them  by  mail  by  paying  the  costs  both  ways.  Such  loans, 
like  the  county  loans  from  the  desk,  are  made  under  the  city  library 
rules. 

Reg'ulations  for  Stations 

"We  have  no  limit  to  the  time  our  stations  should  keep  their  books 
except  that  they  may  not  return  them  within  the  first  month.  We  sent 
out  in  each  case  a  few  very  simple  rules  to  the  librarians  asking  them 
to  vary  as  local  conditions  required.  No  fines  are  asked  except  for 
damaged  books. 

Book  Selection 

"Requests  for  books  from  the  county  are  always  filled  as  promptly 
as  possibly,  and  books  sometimes  are  purchased  with  haste  to  meet  a 
call,  but  as  a  rule  we  select  the  books,  sending  40  per  cent  fiction,  20 
per  cent  non-fiction,  24  per  cent  juvenile  fiction,  and  16  per  cent  juvenile 
non-fiction.  Except  on  request,  we  do  not  send  juvenile  fiction  sets.  We 
have  found  that  most  of  our  county  borrowers  show  a  very  decided 
normal  appetite  for  good  fiction,  but  we  also  notice  that  the  children's 
non-fiction  books  are  quite  popular. 


148  County  Government 

Results  Justify  Expenditures 

"During  the  first  fiscal  year,  May  1,  1915,  to  May  1,  1916,  the  entire 
circulation  was  51,154,  a  gain  of  14,709  over  the  previous  year,  the 
county  loan  being  2,534.  The  second  year.  May  1,  1916,  to  May  1,  1917, 
the  entire  circulation  was  53,688,  a  gain  of  9,659  over  1916,  with  a 
county  loan  of  10,562. 

"There  is  no  doubt  that  our  county,  so  far  as  our  books  have  gone, 
finds  pleasure  in  their  use.  Expressions  at  the  desk  and  letters  from 
some  of  our  station  librarians  give  abundant  evidence  of  this.  We  hope 
soon  to  begin  systematic  visiting  of  all  stations,  and  believe  that  with 
this  greatly  needed  aid  our  county  work  can  be  greatly  enlarged  and 
improved." 

Wliat  a  Small  Tax  Will  Yield 

From  these  summaries  where  the  work  has  been  based  on  an  appro- 
priation from  the  counties  rather  than  upon  a  tax  upon  all  the  assessed 
property,  and  where  a  library  already  established  has  been  utilized,  it 
is  apparent  that  the  service  has  been  secured  for  approximately  one- 
seventh  of  one  cent  per  $100  worth  of  property  in  Mecklenburg,  one- 
fourth  of  one  cent  per  $100  in  Durham,  and  three-quarters  of  one  cent 
per  $100  in  Guilford.  In  these  three  counties  a  levy  of  one  cent  on  the 
hundred  would  yield— in  Mecklenburg  $2,203,  in  Durham  $2,123,  and 
in  Guilford  $1,986. 

Similarly,  for  two  cents  on  the  $100,  Cabarrus  could  appropriate  to 
the  Concord  library  $1,271;  Rowan  to  the  Salisbury  library  $2,230; 
Cumberland  $1,557,  and  largely  increased  library  facilities  for  all  the 
people  could  be  provided  without  burdening  any  one  heavily.  In  this 
way  every  school  library  in  the  county  could  be  strengthened  and  every 
village  and  hamlet  could  receive  new  supplies  of  books  at  regular 
intervals.  The  plan  is  an  admirable  one,  and  is  worthy  the  serious 
attention  of  every  North  Carolina  county. 


In  North  Carolina  149 


CHAPTER  XVIII 

Farm  Demonstration  Work  in  North  Carolina  and  the 

South 

E.   S.  MiLLSAPS,  District  Agent,  Statesville,  N.  C. 

The  definition  of  Farm  Demonstration  "Work  as  given  by  Carl  Vroo- 
man,  Assistant  Secretary  of  Agriculture,  is  as  follows:  "The  County 
Agent  movement  is  the  greatest  and  most  practical  university  exten- 
sion movement  ever  inaugurated  in  any  country.  It  is  essentially  noth- 
ing but  learning  democratized,  learning  brought  out  of  the  laboratory 
and  the  experimental  field,  out  of  the  libraries  and  the  bulletins,  adapted 
to  local  conditions,  and  brought  home  to  the  farmer  by  the  power  of 
personal  explanation  and  actual  demonstration." 

After  ten  years  of  experience  my  own  definition  would  be  about  this: 
Farm  demonstration  is  the  teaching  of  the  fundamental  principles  of 
agriculture  by  personal  contact  with  the  farmer  who  puts  the  teaching 
into  effect  by  a  demonstration. 

Brief  History 

The  work  known  as  Farm  Demonstration  was  started  in  1904,  and  the 
first  field  agent  was  the  late  Dr.  Seaman  A.  Knapp.  In  this  year  Con- 
gress appropriated  $27,000  for  boll-weevil  work,  and  a  portion  of  this 
fund  was  turned  over  to  Dr.  Knapp  to  try  out  his  demonstration  idea. 
Demonstration  farms  were  established  in  several  counties  in  Texas  and 
Louisiana.  The  next  year  Congress  appropriated  $40,000  for  this  work, 
and  the  demonstrations  were  continued  and  extended.  The  next  year 
the  General  Education  Board  of  New  York  became  interested  in  the 
work  and  appropriated  $7,000  of  its  funds  to  extend  the  work  outside 
boll-weevil  territory.  The  Secretary  of  Agriculture  accepted  this  fund, 
and  it  was  increased  by  an  appropriation  of  $37,000  by  Congress.  That 
year  (1906)  the  work  was  extended  to  states  east  of  the  Mississippi 
River  and  into  territory  not  infested  by  the  boll-weevil.  From  1906 
to  1913  the  work  grew  rapidly.  In  1907  the  boys'  club  work  was  started, 
and  in  1911  the  girls'  canning  clubs.  The  appropriations  increased 
from  $27,000  in  1904  to  $330,000  by  Congress  in  1913  and  $142,000  by 
the  General  Education  Board.  The  agents  increased  from  15  in  1904 
to  878  in  1913,  including  at  this  time  several  women  agents. 

In  1914  Congress  passed  the  Smith-Lever  act,  and  the  States  Rela- 
tion Service  was  soon  afterward  organized,  and  the  work  came  to  be 
known  as  agricultural  extension  work.  This  cooperative  work  is  carried 
on  by  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  and  the  state  agri- 


150  County  Government 

cultural  colleges.  That  year  (1914)  Congress  appropriated  $371,000 
and  the  General  Education  Board  $187,000.  In  1915,  by  the  Smith-Lever 
act  of  1914,  Congress  took  over  the  entire  financial  responsibility  and 
appropriated  more  than  $661,000.  During  these  years  the  states  had 
taken  enough  interest  in  the  work  to  make  considerable  appropriations 
to  the  support  of  the  work,  and  many  counties  and  private  individuals 
and  banks  began  to  donate  money  to  carry  on  the  work.  Since  1915 
the  congressional  appropriation  has  increased  by  $500,000  a  year  besides 
the  funds  paid  by  states  and  counties.  The  total  funds  available  in 
1916,  the  last  year  for  which  I  have  complete  records,  were  $4,850,000. 
This  money  was  used  in  the  work  in  both  the  North  and  South,  and 
included  the  women's  work.  The  number  of  men  agents  had  reached 
1,225  and  the  women  agents  430.  The  number  of  farmers  who  have 
enrolled  as  demonstrators  has  increased  from  about  4,000  in  1904  to 
more  than  119,000  in  1916. 

Results  AchiCTed 

The  results  of  this  work  may  be  seen  in  the  increased  yields  of  corn 
and  wheat.  I  give  results  in  the  cotton  states  only.  The  corn  yield  was 
461,000,000  bushels  in  1909  and  613.000,000  bushels  in  1916.  Wheat  was 
28,000,000  bushels  in  1909  and  69,000,000  bushels  in  1916.  A  similar 
increase  is  noted  in  all  other  crops,  while  the  live-stock  interest  has 
been  greatly  stimulated.  More  than  3,000  pure-bred  horses,  8,000  dairy 
cattle,  14,000  beef  cattle,  29,000  hogs,  and  2,000  sheep  have  been  intro- 
duced into  Southern  territory.  The  county  agents  have  treated  many 
thousand  head  of  live-stock  for  diseases  and  taught  farmers  to  treat 
their  stock. 

The  activities  of  the  county  agent  may  be  seen  from  the  following 
items  of  their  work:  Assistance  and  advice  about  the  erection  of  build- 
ings, the  installation  of  home  water  systems,  of  home  lighting  systems, 
the  screening  of  homes  from  flies,  and  the  construction  of  fly-traps, 
advice  about  telephone  systems,  the  making  of  pastures,  tile  drainage, 
terracing  farm  land,  the  pulling  of  stumps,  home  gardens,  winter  cover 
crops,  farm  implements,  dipping  vats,  silos,  the  use  of  lime,  the  use  of 
fertilizers,  the  selection  of  seed,  cooperation  in  buying  and  selling,  the 
organization  of  rural  communities,  and  many  other  things.  The  agents 
have  visited  many  thousands  of  farmers  during  these  years,  have 
traveled  thousands  of  miles,  have  held  thousands  of  meetings  for  the 
discussion  of  various  farm  subjects,  and  have  distributed  thousands  of 
departmental  and  college  bulletins. 

When  the  Morrill  act  was  passed  establishing  the  agricultural  colleges 
it  was  thought  these  colleges  would  be  suflBcient  to  educate  the  Ameri- 
can farmer,  but  it  was  soon  seen  that  something  else  was  needed.  Then 
came  the  Hatch  act  establishing  the  experiment  stations.  These  were 
both  good.    They  were  a  preparatory  step  for  the  great  work  that  was 


In  North  Carolina  151 

coming,  but  there  was  no  connecting  link  between  these  agencies  and 
the  farmer.  The  question  was,  How  can  the  farmer  gain  possession  of 
the  knowledge  obtained  in  these  institutions?  Dr.  Seaman  A.  Knapp 
solved  the  problem  when  he  inaugurated  the  agricultural  demonstra- 
tion movement.  A  New  York  banker  recently  stated  that  the  county- 
agent  in  his  county  had  done  more  for  the  farmers  of  the  county  than 
the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  and  the  agricultural  col- 
leges had  done  in  fifty  years.  This  fully  answers  the  question  as  to 
the  value  of  the  demonstration,  and  the  work  known  as  agricultural 
extension. 

Farm  Demonstration  in  North  Carolina 

Farm  demonstration  work  was  started  in  North  Carolina  in  the 
autumn  of  1907  with  three  county  agents.  The  work  was  financed  then 
by  the  General  Education  Board  of  New  York.  Mr.  C.  R.  Hudson  was 
State  Agent  and  Dr.  Knapp  was  Special  Agent  in  Charge.  The  work 
carried  on  was  similar  to  the  work  done  in  the  other  states  of  the 
South.  Year  by  year  the  number  of  agents  was  increased  and  the  activi- 
ties were  multiplied.  In  1914,  when  the  present  cooperative  arrange- 
ment under  the  Smith-Lever  act  was  effected,  there  were  about  60 
county  agents.  Now  there  are  about  93  white  agents  and  about  14 
colored  agents.  There  are  now  only  seven  counties  which  have  no 
agents.     There  are  five  district  agents  and  a  number  of  specialists. 

The  work  is  supported  by  the  United  States  department,  the  state 
department,  the  county  donations,  and  the  legislative  appropriations. 
From  only  a  few  thousand  dollars  in  1908,  the  funds  for  the  work  have 
increased  to  more  than  $150,000.  These  funds  support  the  boys'  and 
girls'  club  work  and  also  the  specialists  in  dairying,  beef  cattle,  swine, 
poultry,  bees,  etc. 

The  yields  under  demonstration  methods  in  corn  growing  have  never 
been  less  than  40  bushels  per  acre  while  the  average  for  the  state  has 
been  less  than  half  that  amount.  The  boys  have  averaged  more  than  60 
bushels  one  or  two  years.  The  yields  of  all  other  crops  have  increased 
very  materially  during  these  years.  The  general  average  for  corn  has 
increased  from  about  12  bushels  per  acre  to  20  bushels  per  acre.  Live- 
stock work  has  received  much  of  the  attention  of  the  county  agents 
during  all  the  years,  but  this  part  of  the  work  has  been  specially  empha- 
sized recently,  and  there  are  hundreds  of  pure-bred  cattle  and  hogs 
now  in  the  state. 

The  growth  of  the  work  in  North  Carolina  has  been  steady  and  rapid. 
At  first  it  was  considered  an  innovation.  The  first  year,  1908,  there 
were  eight  county  agents,  and  the  work  was  confined  to  corn  and  cotton. 
The  average  yield  of  corn  under  demonstration  methods  was  41  bushels. 
In  1914,  the  last  year  under  the  old  arrangement,  the  average  yield  of 
corn  was  43  bushels.  The  first  district  agent  was  appointed  in  1909, 
the  second  in  1911,  and  the  third  in  1912. 


152  County  Government 

After  the  Smith-Lever  law  went  into  operation  under  the  cooperative 
arrangement  with  the  State  College  of  Agriculture  the  progress  of  the 
work  was  almost  phenomenal.  In  1915,  the  first  full  year  under  the 
Smith-Lever  plan  of  cooperation,  there  were  66  county  agents,  and  the 
average  of  corn  was  43  bushels.  In  1917  there  were  77  county  agents, 
and  the  average  for  corn  was  48  bushels.  This  year  two  additional 
district  agents  were  appointed.  There  are  now  93  white  county  agents, 
five  white  district  agents,  and  there  are  also  one  colored  district  agent 
and  15  colored  county  agents.  The  boys'  corn  clubs  started  in  1907 
with  only  a  few  boys  interested,  and  now  the  enrollment  of  boys  reaches 
into  thousands.  The  pig  clubs  were  started  in  1914  in  a  small  way, 
and  now  it  seems  the  pig  clubs  are  about  to  run  ahead  of  all  other 
activities.  The  demand  for  pigs  takes  almost  every  available  female 
pig  of  pure  breeding  produced  in  the  state.  The  yield  of  corn  alone  is 
given  as  it  would  take  too  much  time  to  go  into  the  yields  of  all  our 
crops. 

The  number  of  visits  to  farmers  by  county  agents  in  1917  was  53,821; 
visits  to  business  men  7,459;  visits  to  boys'  and  girls'  club  members 
11,558;  the  number  of  miles  traveled  by  rail  was  105,453;  by  team 
102,004;  by  auto  249,988;  making  a  total  of  nearly  half  a  million  miles 
traveled  in  North  Carolina  in  one  year.  The  county  agents  had  40,000 
calls  at  office  by  farmers  and  business  men  for  information,  and  more 
than  11,000  telephone  calls.  There  were  3,708  public  meetings  held 
with  an  attendance  of  251,817  persons.  There  were  1,055  field  meetings 
held  with  an  attendance  of  14,488  persons.  There  were  45,150  official 
letters  written,  1,755  articles  for  the  press,  52,222  circular  letters  pre- 
pared and  sent  out,  76,721  United  States  bulletins  distributed,  36,003 
college  and  state  department  bulletins,  and  1,998  visits  to  schools.  There 
were  984  farmers  who  kept  cost  records  of  their  farm  operations  in 
1917;  20,623  farmers  selected  seed  in  the  field,  and  1,496  farmers  are 
selecting  seeds  for  sale.  Nearly  12,000  pastures  were  renovated,  more 
than  35,000  acres  were  terraced,  3,000  acres  tile  drained,  and  more  than 
7,000  acres  cleared  of  stumps.  More  than  3,500  homes  made  improve- 
ment in  sanitary  conditions,  6,687  homes  were  screened  from  flies, 
1,820  fly-traps  installed,  and  2,035  sanitary  privies  erected. 

Since  the  county  agent  work  started  the  number  of  pure-bred  dairy 
cattle  has  increased  from  997  to  3,035;  pure-bred  beef  cattle  bulls  have 
increased  from  108  to  434;  dipping  vats  have  grown  from  none  to  205, 
and  last  year  6,620  head  of  cattle  were  dipped.  The  number  of  pure- 
bred hogs  has  more  than  doubled,  and  thousands  of  farmers  have  been 
induced  to  grow  grazing  crops  for  hogs. 

The  results  achieved  and  the  progress  gained  in  these  years  promise 
great  things  for  the  Old  North  State.  The  combined  crop  wealth  in  1909 
was  $142,000,000,  and  in  1916  it  was  $274,000,000,  an  increase  of  $132,- 
000,000.     The  total  crop  wealth  produced  in  1917  was  $417,000,000,  an 


In  Worth  Carolina  153 

increase  of  more  than  $275,000,000  over  1909,  or  193  per  cent,  while  the 
increase  for  the  decade  ending  with  1909  was  only  108  per  cent.  Farm 
wealth  has  greatly  increased.  There  are  better  homes,  better  schools, 
better  roads,  better  sanitation,  and  withal  a  greater  vision,  and  an 
increased  willingness  to  support  a  greater  civilization. 


154  County  Government 

CHAPTER  XIX 

Home  Demonstration  Work  in  North  Carolina 

Mbs.  Jane  S.  McKimmon,  Home  Demonstration  Agent  for  the  State, 
Raleigh,  N.  C. 

In  the  absence  of  a  manuscript  from  Mrs.  McKimmon,  we  can  only 
present  the  college  press  reports  of  her  admirable  address. 

"Emphasizing  the  fact  that  the  war  can  be  won  not  only  by  producing 
but  also  by  conserving,  Mrs.  Jane  McKimmon,  of  Raleigh,  State  Home 
Demonstration  Agent,  made  a  very  interesting  and  instructive  talk 
before  the  regular  fortnightly  meeting  of  the  North  Carolina  Club  on 
Monday  night.  Mrs.  McKimmon  is  the  first  lady  that  has  ever  addressed 
this  Club.  Many  ladies  were  present,  and  she  received  the  closest  atten- 
tion of  her  hearers. 

"Albert  Coates.  President  of  the  Club,  introduced  the  speaker  and 
spoke  of  her  work  as  requiring  wonderful  executive  ability  and  infinite 
tact;  and,  said  he,  after  several  years  of  experience  North  Carolina 
feels  that  she  has  made  no  mistake  in  selecting  Mrs.  McKimmon. 

"Home  demonstration  work  since  its  organization  in  North  Carolina 
in  1911  was  fully  discussed  by  Mrs.  McKimmon.  The  expenses  of  this 
work  are  met  by  contributions  by  county,  state,  and  federal  govern- 
ments. Canning  club  work  was  started  with  not  over  100  girls  in  any 
one  county  in  1911,  but  before  the  end  of  that  year  they  had  produced 
35,000  tins  of  tomatoes.  Today,  said  she,  there  are  75  counties  organized 
for  such  work,  with  54  trained  home  economics  women  as  instructors 
and  coworkers^women  who  are  the  very  best  community  workers. 

"Mrs.  McKimmon  told  of  the  increasing  interest  and  response  of  the 
counties  to  the  growing  demands  of  this  community  work.  When  the 
work  was  begun  some  of  the  county  commissioners  grudgingly  gave 
$50  for  this  community  club  work;  now  four  counties  are  giving  $1,200 
each  per  year. 

"The  work  of  the  home  demonstrators  in  organizing  canning  cam- 
paigns, especially  among  the  factory  girls,  of  interesting  the  people  in 
growing  gardens,  however  small,  and  of  encouraging  the  conservation 
of  food,  were  all  discussed  at  length  by  Mrs.  McKimmon. 

"In  this  work  we  have  closely  cooperated  with  the  state  and  national 
food  commissions,  the  speaker  said.  People  have  been  urged  to  eat  less 
wheat,  meat,  fats,  and  sugars  in  order  to  help  our  allies.  Smaller 
rations  make  healthier  and  more  alert  people,  she  said  in  conclusion." 


In  North  Carolina  155 


CHAPTER  XX 

Bridge-Building  in  North  Carolina 

W.  S.  Faulis,  N.  C.  State  Highway  Engineer 

Bridge-building,  so  long  regarded  as  a  trade,  is  today  truly  a  science. 
Less  than  100  years  ago  it  was  not  deemed  by  any  one  worthy  to  be 
termed  an  art,  while  today  it  is  both  a  science  and  an  art.  Practically 
all  of  the  distinctive  types  of  modern  bridges  have  been  developed 
within  the  past  forty  years.  This  holds  good  for  both  American  and 
European  practice.  This  does  not  mean  that  the  years  preceding  the 
present  century  did  not  contribute  anything  to  this  work.  As  a  learned 
profession  it  is  nevertheless  of  very  recent  origin.  Bridge  engineering 
reaches  back  into  a  remote  period.  Early  man  built  many  crossings 
over  shallow  streams  by  piling  in  rocks  for  piers  and  covering  them 
with  slabs  of  stone  or  logs,  or  by  felling  trees  so  as  to  span  small 
streams,  and  sometimes  even  rivers  of  narrow  channel  have  been 
spanned  in  this  way.  We  can  look  to  still  earlier  traditions  for  the 
beginnings  that  were  made  during  the  twilight  times  of  the  race.  In- 
deed, we  can  go  back  to  the  monkeys  who  form  living  bridges  of  their 
own  interlocked  bodies  over  which  the  inhabitants  of  the  monkey  world 
pass  across  streams  and  chasms.  The  intelligence  thus  exhibited  by 
the  simian  takes  us  back  into  the  dim  regions  of  instinctive  bridge- 
building. 

It  is  a  long  way  indeed  from  these  primitive  crossings  to  the  present 
development  of  this  science,  to  such  structures  for  instance  as  the  great 
bridges  across  the  river  in  New  York,  or  the  Quebec  cantilever  struc- 
ture, and  the  Eads  bridge  at  St  Louis,  and  at  present  to  the  many 
beautiful  as  well  as  permanent  concrete  bridges  scattered  throughout 
the  world. 

It  is  not  my  purpose  tonight  to  discuss  bridges  in  a  technical  way, 
at  least  to  the  extent  of  going  into  the  science  involved  in  designing 
bridges,  but  I  wish  to  discuss  it  in  a  way  that  will  give  to  the  students 
and  others  some  information  of  the  condition  existing  in  our  state,  at 
least  to  some  extent  showing  the  need  for  more  thought,  more  study, 
and  more  work  to  develop  for  the  state  suitable  and  safe  bridges  for  the 
agricultural  and  commercial  products  of  our  people. 

Our  Bridges  Insufficient  and  Unsafe 

It  is  a  well-known  fact  that  the  vast  majority  of  the  bridges  of  the 
state  are  unsafe  and  insufficient  in  size  and  capacity;  and  for  many 
classes  of  traffic  are  so  dangerous  as  to  prohibit  such  traffic  altogether 


156  County  Government 

on  many  of  the  roads  of  the  state.  In  my  own  practice  I  had  occasion 
a  few  years  ago  to  bring  a  crusher  across  a  road  on  which  there  were  16 
small  bridges,  with  the  result  that  every  bridge  that  we  crossed  was 
broken  in  by  the  load,  and  it  was  only  by  rare  good  luck  that  we  suc- 
ceeded in  one  case  in  saving  the  crusher  from  being  sunk  in  a  canal  12 
or  15  feet,  under  mud  and  water.  This  was  not  an  unusual  load  by  any 
means,  but  a  load  that  would  be  in  hazard  under  the  present  condition 
of  our  roads  during  a  large  portion  of  the  year. 

I  had  a  letter  a  few  days  ago  from  a  firm  dealing  in  motor  trucks, 
stating  that  one  of  their  new  trucks,  loaded  with  only  three  tons  of 
material,  had  broken  practically  all  of  the  bridges  they  had  crossed  in  a 
certain  county  of  the  state. 

There  are  a  great  many  phases  to  be  considered  in  the  proper  design 
and  construction  of  highway  bridges.  The  very  first  thing  that  should 
be  definitely  taken  into  consideration  is  a  proper  design  and  careful 
engineering  supervision  in  construction.  Failure  in  these  two  particu- 
lars is  responsible  for  a  loss  of  three  out  of  four  of  the  bridges  that  are 
washed  away  by  recurring  floods  and  high  waters  in  the  streams  of  the 
state. 

It  was  my  opportunity,  after  the  recent  flood  in  Western  North  Caro- 
lina, to  inspect  many  of  the  bridges  in  that  section.  In  one  case  a 
bridge  had  been  built  by  contract  with  a  bridge  company  without  super- 
vision of  any  kind  on  the  part  of  the  county,  and  was  washed  away  by 
the  flood  of  1916.  Careful  inspection  of  the  foundation  work  of  this 
bridge  developed  the  fact  that  no  foundation  whatever  had  been  pro- 
vided for  the  piers.  They  had  been  placed  on  the  natural  bed  of  the 
river  without  even  removing  the  sand  and  gravel  or  disturbing  it  in  any 
way  in  order  to  secure  a  better  foundation. 

The  majority  of  the  bridges,  I  am  glad  to  say,  now  being  rebuilt 
across  the  Catawba  River,  and  some  of  those  over  the  Yadkin  River, 
are  receiving  careful  consideration  both  in  design  and  construction,  and 
I  venture  to  say  that  the  same  flood  that  destroyed  many  of  these  bridges 
in  their  original  construction  would  fail  to  affect  them  as  now  recon- 
structed. 

Bridge  Materials 

The  proper  material  to  be  used  in  the  construction  of  a  bridge  de- 
pends largely  on  local  conditions,  cost,  etc.  A  great  deal  also  depends 
on  the  amount  of  traflBc,  as  well  as  the  funds  available  for  its  construc- 
tion. Prior  to  the  conditions  brought  about  by  the  war,  steel  had 
become  almost  the  universal  material  from  which  bridges  of  almost 
every  class  were  constructed.  With  the  almost  prohibitive  price  of 
steel  bridges  at  present,  reinforced  concrete  arch  and  girder  spans  have 
become  much  more  common  as  material  for  bridges.  Wood  is  being 
used  to  a  considerably  greater  extent  now  than  for  years  past.  The 
high  cost  of  maintenance  on  wood,  however,  as  well  as  the  inability  to 


In  ISToRTH  Carolina  157 

secure  the  high  quality  of  timber  required  for  good  bridge  work,  makes 
wood  an  undesirable  material  for  bridges.  Still,  because  of  its  great 
tensile  strength,  the  accuracy  and  facility  with  which  it  can  be  worked, 
its  permanency,  if  reasonable  care  is  taken  of  it,  has  made  it  a  favorite 
material  among  bridge  engineers  for  the  construction  of  practically  all 
large  and  very  many  of  the  smaller  bridges  throughout  the  country. 

Bridge  Designs 

The  designing  of  bridges  is  almost  an  exact  science,  and  standards 
have  been  developed  to  such  an  extent  that  it  is  easy  for  a  bridge  com- 
pany to  build  a  bridge  from  patterns  on  hand.  In  fact,  much  easier  to 
build  a  bridge  from  patterns  on  hand  than  it  is  for  a  lady  to  secure  a 
new  dress  from  her  dressmaker,  because  the  fashions  in  bridges  are  not 
subject  to  such  great  fluctuations  as  are  the  fashions  in  clothes.  Many, 
if  not  all,  >  of  the  state  highway  departments  have  developed  standard 
plans  for  bridges  to  be  built  under  the  supervision  of  the  departments, 
and  to  be  used  by  the  counties  of  the  state  for  the  purpose  of  securing 
better  bridges  than  are  usually  sold  by  the  bridge  companies.  Many  of 
the  bridge  company  salesmen  are  to  a  degree  irresponsible,  in  so  far 
as  the  interest  of  the  people  using  the  bridge  is  concerned,  and  are 
willing  to  make  contracts  through  the  submission  of  low  bids  for  light 
designs  that  mean  practically  a  waste  of  money  to  the  purchaser.  Of 
course  the  loading  which  a  highway  bridge  should  carry  depends  on 
the  weight  of  the  traffic  on  the  road  on  which  the  bridge  is  located, 
together  with  a  due  allowance  for  occasional  increased  weights. 

For  rural  bridges  it  is  almost  always  best  in  designing  the  floor 
system  to  provide  for  a  uniform  live-load  of  a  hundred  pounds  per 
square  foot,  or  a  concentrated  load  of  12  tons  on  two  axles  12  feet  apart, 
with  wheels  spaced  6  feet  apart  with  two-thirds  of  the  load  on  the 
rear  axle. 

The  truss  design  should,  in  my  opinion,  be  sufficient  to  carry  a  uni- 
form floor  load  of  125  pounds  per  square  foot  for  spans  under  50  feet, 
and  100  pounds  per  square  foot  for  spans  greater  than  100  feet. 

As  I  stated  previously,  a  large  number  of  the  bridge  failures  in  the 
country  have  been  due  to  improperly  designed  abutments.  There  is  a 
general  idea  throughout  the  country  which  confuses  abutments  with 
piers,  and  in  many  cases  we  find  bridges  constructed  on  slender  cylin- 
drical piers  with  no  provision  for  restraining  the  fill  at  the  approach 
through  wooden  boards  resting  against  these  cylinder  piers.  Properly 
designed  cylinder  piers,  when  they  are  used  simply  as  piers  and  not 
abutments,  are  not  objectionable,  but  where  we  attempt  to  make  them 
both  a  retaining  wall  and  a  support  for  the  bridge,  there  is  no  excuse 
for  their  use  nor  for  the  ignorance  of  the  purchaser.  And  it  is  a  very 
common  sight  to  see  these  bridges  destroyed  by  the  ordinary  high 
waters  that  come  at  very  frequent  intervals  every  year. 


158  County  Government 

In  designing  piers  and  abutments  the  size  of  the  foundation  should 
usually  depend  on  the  foundation  material.  Careful  investigation 
should  always  be  made,  not  only  at  the  point  where  the  pier  is  to  be 
placed,  but  for  some  distance  around  the  pier  location,  and  this  should 
be  done,  of  course,  before  the  design  for  the  pier  is  made.  There  are 
many  ways  by  which  this  test  can  be  made,  among  which  are  drilling 
with  augers,  sinking  pipes  with  water  jets,  or  by  using  a  percussion 
drill,  and  even  by  sounding  with  rods. 

When  the  character  of  the  foundation  has  been  fully  determined,  it 
is  then  a  matter  for  the  bridge  engineer  to  determine  the  design  for 
the  pier.  Highway  bridges  are  most  frequently  of  wood  design,  some- 
times of  reinforced  concrete,  and  occasionally  of  steel.  Where  it  is 
possible  to  provide  sufficient  strength  in  the  trusses  to  carry  the  weight, 
reinforced  concrete  has  many  advantages  over  other  classes  of  floors, 
but  the  trusses  and  details  of  the  bridge  must  be  designed  to  carry  a 
concrete  floor.  Old  bridges  designed  for  wood  floors  should  never  be 
replaced  by  concrete,  unless  the  design  of  the  truss  is  ample  to  carry  the 
added  dead  load. 

A  wooden  floor  that  is  very  economical  has  recently  been  used  by 
many  bridge  builders.  This  floor  practically  doubles  the  life  of  the 
ordinary  wood  floor,  and  decreases  vibration  cost  by  traffic.  Thoroughly 
seasoned  timber  is  used,  carefully  dressed  to  the  size,  and  bolted  to- 
gether in  such  a  way  as  to  make  a  tight  floor.  A  bituminous  mat  from 
one-half  to  two  inches  thick,  of  either  asphalt  or  tar  filled  with  stone 
chips,  is  placed  hot  or  cold  on  the  bridge  floor.  This  mat  protects  the 
lumber  in  the  floor  from  the  water,  and  thus  increases  its  life,  makes 
the  floor  smooth,  and  reduces  vibration. 

One  of  the  greatest  crimes  committed  by  county  authorities  against 
the  taxpaying  public  is  their  failure  to  maintain  bridges  properly; 
that  is  to  say,  by  failing  to  keep  the  floors  in  smooth  and  safe  condi- 
tion, and  the  bridges  painted.  Steel  bridges  should  never  be  allowed 
to  go  more  than  three  years  without  being  thoroughly  cleaned  and 
painted;  preferably  two  years  should  be  the  limit  in  repainting  the 
average  steel  bridge.  Rust  soon  makes  inroads  into  the  material,  thus 
injuring  it  as  well  as  its  appearance.  Careful  selection  of  paint  should 
be  made,  and  the  bridge  thoroughly  cleaned  before  paint  is  applied. 
It  should  then  be  applied  by  an  experienced  man  who  will  work  the 
paint  into  all  the  crevices  and  points  where  dampness  is  likely  to 
remain,  so  as  to  thoroughly  protect  these  points  from  rust. 

Many  concrete  bridges  are  now  being  built.  They  are  designed  to 
sustain  at  least  as  heavy  a  live  load  as  steel  bridges.  Since  the  weight 
of  traffic  steadily  increases,  these  concrete  bridges  are  being  built  to 
sustain  heavier  live  loads  than  in  case  of  similar  steel  bridges. 

Many  types  of  arch  bridges  are  being  built,  and  many  of  these  are 
capable  of  being  made  very  beautiful  in  design  and  construction.     A 


In  North  Carolina  159 

bridge  of  this  type  is  now  being  built  by  the  State  Highway  Commission 
at  Sloan's  Ferry.  It  is  a  barrel  arch  with  span  of  arches  placed  on  the 
barrel  to  carry  the  floor  system.  Another  type  of  bridge  that  is  com- 
monly used  is  the  rib  arch,  constructed  with  solid  spandrel  walls,  and 
in  some  cases  with  spandrel  arches  spanning  the  ribs.  A  bridge  of  this 
type  is  now  being  constructed  across  the  river  near  Hickory,  N.  C,  and 
another  of  the  same  type  has  been  built  below  Asheville  over  the 
French  Broad  River.  The  slab  type  is  used  for  spans  not  exceeding 
16  feet  in  length.  This  type  of  bridge  is  simply  a  reinforced  concrete 
slab  placed  on  top  of  the  abutments. 

A  girder  type  can  be  constructed  for  spans  up  to  60  feet.  Another 
type  that  is  more  or  less  popular  is  the  I-beam  type,  in  which  I-beams 
are  used  to  carry  the  load,  and  are  incased  entirely  in  concrete  with 
the  concrete  floor.  This  forms  a  T-beam,  and  very  frequently  cannot 
be  told  on  inspection  from  the  girder  T-beam  type. 

In  conclusion,  I  want  to  urge  upon  all,  for  the  sake  of  the  safety 
of  the  people  using  the  roads  of  the  state,  as  well  as  for  the  sake  of 
economy  in  the  use  of  the  money  provided  by  the  people  for  the  purpose 
of  building  bridges,  that  great  care  should  be  taken  to  secure  adequate 
designs  made  by  independent  and  competent  bridge  engineers,  those 
who  are  not  in  any  way  connected  with  any  bridge  company  or  any 
contractor  proposing  to  build  the  bridge;  and  that  careful  supervision 
of  its  construction  be  entrusted  to  a  man  competent  to  inspect  the  work 
and  to  see  that  the  terms  of  the  contract  are  being  carried  out  in  every 
respect,  and  especially  that  the  foundations  on  which  the  bridge  is 
built  are  entirely  safe  to  carry  the  structure. 

If  these  conditions  of  design  and  inspection  had  been  carefully 
enforced  for  the  past  ten  years  I  feel  sure  that,  instead  of  95  per  cent 
of  our  bridges  being  unsafe  for  traffic,  at  least  75  per  cent  of  our  bridges 
would  now  be  structures  that  the  people  of  our  state  might  feel  both 
proud  to  own  and  safe  to  travel  over.  And  I  would  like  to  urge  that 
the  public  do  all  in  its  power  to  see  that  hereafter  the  designs  and  con- 
struction of  bridges  are  placed  in  competent  hands,  in  order  that  both 
safety  and  economy  may  be  secured. 


160  County  Government 


CHAPTER  XXI 
County  Responsibility  for  Public  Welfare 

E.  C.  Branson,  Professor  of  Rural  Economics  and  Sociology, 
University  of  North  Carolina 

What  the  State  Can  Do 

An  effective  attack  upon  the  public  welfare  problems  of  a  state  is  two- 
fold: (1)  by  a  state  welfare  board  and  state  welfare  institutions,  and 
(2)  by  town  and  county  welfare  boards  and  institutions.  Both  attacks 
must  of  course  be  supported  by  public  intelligence  sensitively  aware  of 
existing  conditions  and  humanely  moved  to  remedy  them,  else  they 
fail  or  limp  along  lamely  on  one  foot.  I  call  attention  mainly  to  the 
second  aspect  of  the  subject  because  it  concerns  our  critical  weakness 
in  dealing  with  public  welfare  problems  in  North  Carolina  and  in 
most  other  states. 

Public  welfare  work  calls  for  a  state  board  of  public  welfare,  state- 
wide in  authority,  supported  by  sufficient  funds,  properly  functioned, 
and  adequately  officered,  and  for  state  institutions  that  are  large  enough 
to  care  for  the  delinquents,  the  dependents,  the  defectives,  and  the  neg- 
lected who  cannot  be  better  cared  for  by  local  authority  and  institutions. 
"We  must  have  state  penitentiaries,  state  prison  farms,  and  state  convict 
camps  because  convicted  criminals  are  too  few  in  any  one  county  for  the 
proper  punishment  and  effective  reformation  of  social  offenders  in 
county  jails.  We  must  have  state  schools  for  the  reformation  of  way- 
ward boys  and  girls,  state  institutions  for  fallen  women,  state  hospitals 
for  the  insane  and  the  epileptic,  state  schools  for  the  deaf  and  blind, 
the  crippled  and  the  feeble-minded,  because  the  county  cannot  afford 
to  establish  special  institutions  to  deal  fitly  with  the  relatively  small 
number  of  such  unfortunates  in  each  county.  It  is  properly  the  busi- 
ness of  the  state  to  gather  them  into  state  institutions  of  the  very  best 
possible  type  and  to  deal  with  them  properly  under  the  general  over- 
sight of  a  state  welfare  board. 

What  the  County  Can  Do 

But,  on  the  other  hand,  it  calls  for  county  boards  of  public  welfare 
with  county-wide  authority  and  trained  executive  secretaries.  Because 
(1)  many  of  our  social  ills  bulk  up  so  big  that  they  can  be  successfully 
attacked  only  in  detail  by  local  interest,  local  effort,  and  local  institu- 
tions. Tuberculosis  and  poverty  are  capital  instances  of  social  prob- 
lems that  are  beyond  the  possibilities  of  state  institutions,  and  that 


In  North  Carolina  161 

necessarily  wait  upon  organized  county  efforts  of  effective  sort.  Be- 
cause (2)  the  state  officials  in  a  big  state  institution  or  in  a  big  central 
office  at  the  capital  cannot  finger  certain  social  problems  down  to  the 
last  details.  For  instance,  we  do  not  know  the  deaf,  the  blind,  the 
feeble-minded,  the  epileptic,  the  crippled,  and  the  neglected  or  wayward 
boys  and  girls — their  number,  their  names,  and  their  residences,  in  any 
county  of  the  state;  and  so  because  there  is  at  present  no  local  organi- 
zation charged  with  the  responsibility  of  accounting  for  such  unfor- 
tunates, and  with  the  duty  of  urging  them  in  sympathetic  ways  into 
proper  state  institutions.  And  because  (3)  a  large  number  of  neces- 
sary reforms  in  the  state  are  delayed  by  the  lack  of  efficient  county  wel- 
fare boards  and  secretaries.  Thus,  we  cannot  now  have  juvenile  courts 
or  special  sessions  of  our  circuit  courts  adequately  to  consider  juvenile 
offenders  in  chambers  as  wards  in  chancery,  and  wayward  children 
under  sixteen  years  of  age  cannot  now  be  put  on  probation  under  our 
present  law  in  North  Carolina,  because  there  is  nobody  officially  charged 
in  our  counties  with  looking  after  juvenile  probationers,  or  who  is  con- 
ditioned to  do  it  properly. 

For  the  same  reason  another  progressive  movement  in  prison  reform 
falls  to  pieces  in  this  state.  I  refer  to  the  lack  of  authoritative  over- 
sight of  prisoners  on  parole  from  the  county  and  district  courts,  the 
state  reformatories,  and  the  state  penitentiary.  We  lack  the  same  kind 
of  oversight  over  the  families  of  criminals  in  prison  and  over  criminals 
upon  their  return  home  after  release. 

County  Welfare  Boards 

Other  matters  of  importance  wait  upon  the  creation  and  proper  func- 
tioning of  county  welfare  boards.  For  instance,  orphan  children  cannot 
now  be  placed  out  in  homes  in  this  state — as  a  wise  and  safe  policy  in 
general,  because  at  present  we  cannot  properly  investigate  and  appraise 
the  homes  that  apply  for  such  children,  nor  can  we  keep  such  homes 
under  systematic  regular  supervision  to  see  that  the  children  are  prop- 
erly cared  for  and  humanely  provided  with  school  advantages  and 
other  opportunities.  Bound-out  children  need  the  same  oversight  in 
North  Carolina,  but  at  present  they  cannot  receive  it. 

Our  orphan  asylums — and  there  are  no  better  in  any  state  or  coun- 
try— cannot  care  for  all  the  bereft  and  neglected  children  of  North 
Carolina.  They  are  crowded  to  overflowing,  and  the  known  applicants 
number  many  more  than  can  find  places  in  them.  A  placing-out  policy 
is  inevitable,  and  the  social  machinery  therefor  is  being  created  in 
other  states.  It  ought  to  be  a  county  machinery;  so,  because  county 
authority  is  closest  to  the  problem  and  can  most  effectively  and  inex- 
pensively consider  the  children  that  need  good  homes  and  the  homes 
that  are  able  to  make  children  good. 
11 


162  County  Government 

Mothers'  pensions  are  another  necessity  in  North  Carolina  that  we 
cannot  undertake  until  we  have  county  welfare  boards  and  superin- 
tendents. We  cannot  venture  into  legislation  on  this  matter  until  it  is 
somebody's  stated  business  in  every  county  to  know  when  it  is  best  to 
preserve  the  integrity  of  fatherless  homes  by  giving  widowed  mothers 
of  good  character  financial  support  sufficient  to  enable  them  to  rear 
their  children  outside  of  charity  institutions.  For  lack  of  such  pen- 
sions the  best  of  homes  must  oftentimes  be  broken  up;  and  while  the 
mothers  struggle  for  self-support  away  from  their  children,  their  chil- 
dren become  a  heavy  charge  upon  the  charity  of  the  state  or  join  the 
swelling  multitude  of  orphans  that  cannot  be  cared  for  in  our  orphan 
asylums.  The  children  in  orphan  asylums  need  to  be  placed  in  good 
homes  as  fast  as  they  can  be  found;  the  orphans  already  in  good  homes 
need  to  be  kept  there  by  mothers'  pensions.  Wisdom  in  determining 
all  these  details  depends  upon  painstaking  case  work,  which  could  be 
done  by  county  welfare  boards  and  their  secretaries.  Without  such 
organized  agencies  the  placing-out  of  orphan  children  is  a  mistake. 

Some  Common  Mistakes 

So  far,  I  am  roughly  distinguishing  between  what  can  and  ought  to 
be  done  by  state  welfare  institutions  on  the  one  hand,  and  what  can 
best  be  done  by  county  welfare  institutions  on  the  other.  The  distinc- 
tion is  important.  The  state  ought  not  to  attempt  in  futile  ways  what 
can  be  done  only  by  local  county  effort,  nor  ought  counties  to  attempt 
what  can  be  done  by  the  state  alone.  Here  and  there  in  the  United 
States  costly  mistakes  are  being  made  for  the  lack  of  this  distinction 
in  efforts  and  institutions. 

For  instance,  a  state  sanitarium  for  the  tuberculous  is  necessary  as 
a  clinic;  as  a  center  of  up-to-date  learning  in  the  treatment  of  this 
disease,  and  as  an  agency  of  state-wide  educational  effort  and  emphasis, 
but  it  is,  of  course,  impossible  as  a  curing  station  for  all  the  consump- 
tives of  any  state.  How  could  an  institution  with  135  beds  undertake 
to  cure  the  fifteen  thousand  cases  of  pronounced  tuberculosis  in  this 
or  any  other  state?  Here  is  a  situation  that  calls  for  county  interest, 
county  effort,  and  county  hospitals — if  not  one  in  each  county,  then 
one  at  least  for  each  group  of  cooperating  counties.  So  far  we  have  only 
a  few  county  tuberculosis  hospitals;  in  Wisconsin  there  are  forty-seven. 

The  Misuse  of  Jails 

On  the  other  hand,  our  counties  have  long  undertaken  to  punish  con- 
victed misdemeanants  in  jails  and  chain-gangs.  Jails  are  places  for  the 
detention  of  persons  indicted  for  crimes  and  presumed  to  be  innocent 
until  they  are  proven  guilty.  As  instruments  of  punishment  for  con- 
victed criminals,  they  are  a  failure  and  worse,  they  are  an  unspeakable 


In  North  Carolina  163 

reproach  in  every  land  and  country.  The  punishment,  reformation, 
and  social  restoration  of  convicts  is  the  business  of  the  state,  and  the 
state  with  penitentiaries  for  felony  convicts  and  state  farms  for  misde- 
meanants (as  in  Indiana,  for  instance)  has  a  chance  to  succeed  in  these 
delicate,  difficult  tasks,  the  chances  for  success  lying  in  proper  ideals 
and  purposes,  facilities,  plans,  and  methods:  the  county  is  bound  to  fail 
with  jails  and  chain-gangs.  When  prisoners  pass  out  of  our  courts 
under  sentence,  they  ought  to  pass  out  of  our  county  jails  into  state 
penitentiaries  and  state  prison  farms  for  punishment  and  restitution 
to  useful  citizenship. 

The  state  should  not  attempt  to  finger  in  direct  ways  the  details  of 
many  social  ills.  It  can  never  be  done  for  an  entire  state,  in  many  fields 
of  welfare  work,  by  any  possible  number  of  social  experts  and  super- 
visors in  any  one  central  office.  There  must  be  a  staff  of  specialists  in 
the  office  of  the  state  board  to  be  sure,  but  it  will  be  small  and  its  efforts 
will  be  directed  to  keeping  abreast  or  well  ahead  of  the  times  in  applied 
social  science,  to  the  education  and  stimulation  of  the  public,  and  to  the 
oversight  and  guidance  of  social  efforts  and  enterprises,  state  and  local, 
public  and  private.  Social  diagnosis  and  social  guardianship,  case 
work,  supervision  and  guardianship  in  detail  must  at  last  be  the  busi- 
ness of  local  town  and  county  authorities  under  the  guidance  of  the 
central  office  at  the  capital. 

Everything  of  which  I  have  spoken  is  possible  under  our  new  public 
welfare  law.  Our  new  State  Board  of  Public  Welfare  has  duties,  rights, 
and  powers  that  are  far  beyond  those  of  the  old  board.  The  law  under 
which  it  operates  puts  us  well  ahead  of  all  other  Southern  States  in 
the  work  of  charities  and  corrections  and  well  alongside  the  states  of 
the  North  and  East  in  opportunities  and  possibilities. 

It  seems  fairly  clear  that  our  new  state  board  will  miss  its  largest 
chance  for  effective  service  unless  it  can  stimulate  local  interest  in 
public  welfare  problems  and  organize  welfare  machinery  by  counties, 
just  as  our  public  school  and  public  health  officers  are  doing  in  their 
particular  fields  of  effort.  The  job  is  entirely  too  big  for  any  one  central 
office  or  any  set  of  state  institutions.  It  is  county  concern,  county 
interest,  county  activity,  and  county  institutions  that  will  count  most 
in  the  end;  not  state-wide  efforts  and  state-wide  institutions,  but  county- 
wide  efforts  and  county-wide  institutions  in  a  hundred  counties. 

A  Quarter  Century  Job 

Our  counties  will  be  slow  to  create  county  welfare  boards  and  to  sup- 
port county  welfare  superintendents,  because  such  officials  increase  the 
local  tax  burden  and  because  the  people  in  general  see  neither  rhyme 
nor  reason  in  the  proposition  at  present.  What  would  a  welfare  super- 
intendent have  to  do  in  our  county  more  than  going  out  to  the  poor- 
house  occasionally  and  looking  in  at  the  jail  every  once  in  awhile?  is 


164  County  Government 

the  question  put  to  me  the  other  day.  This  question  will  be  asked  a 
million  times  or  so  in  the  next  quarter  century  in  North  Carolina,  and 
it  must  be  answered  convincingly  if  we  are  to  move  ahead  in  a  hopeful 
direction. 

Reluctance  on  part  of  taxpayers  is  natural  enough,  because  the  cost 
of  county  government  is  everywhere  increasing  by  leaps  and  bounds. 
In  North  Carolina  in  1913  it  amounted  to  nearly  seven  million  dollars, 
which  was  more  than  double  the  cost  of  state  government  at  that  time. 
Largely,  this  increase  is  due  to  waste  by  honest  but  inefficient  county 
officials.  We  must  be  able  to  show  that  the  salary  system  for  courthouse 
officials  in  at  least  58  counties  of  the  state,  when  protected  by  the  audit- 
ing of  county  accounts  by  state  accountants,  would  create  county  fee 
funds  sufficient  to  pay  the  salaries  of  all  county  officers  and  leave  bal- 
ances large  enough  to  support  county  welfare  superintendents.  Already 
the  salary  system  of  compensating  county  officers  is  in  vogue  in  fifty 
counties  of  the  state.  The  proper  auditing  of  fees  and  commissions  in 
all  of  them  would  create  fee  and  salary  funds  sufficient  to  support  a 
welfare  superintendent  in  addition  to  other  county  officers.  After  pay- 
ing all  county  salaries  the  balances  left  over  in  eight  counties  last  year 
were  large  enough  for  this  purpose.  These  balances  ranged  from  $2,800 
in  Iredell  to  $25,000  in  Guilford.  Under  this  plan,  with  good  manage- 
ment, the  balances  could  easily  be  large  enough  to  support  county  wel- 
fare superintendents  in  more  than  half  the  counties  of  the  state. 

And  again,  we  are  spending  around  $258,000  a  year  on  county  homes 
and  in  the  support  of  outside  paupers;  and  this  cost  is  mounting  up 
rapidly  year  by  year,  for  lack  of  intelligent  local  interest,  oversight, 
and  management.  An  effective  attack  upon  our  pauper  problem  alone 
would  not  only  decrease  the  volume  of  our  pauperism  but  it  could  cer- 
tainly reduce  the  bill  of  costs.  If  so,  here  is  money  enough  saved  in  a 
single  detail  to  pay  the  salaries  and  expenses  of  welfare  superintend- 
ents in  half  a  hundred  counties. 

There  are  other  approaches  to  the  financial  end  of  this  county  prob- 
lem. They  are  this  year  being  threshed  out  by  the  North  Carolina  Club 
at  the  University.  The  Club  Year  Book  for  1917-18  gives  these  studies 
to  the  public.  Two  of  them  have  already  appeared  in  Bulletin  No.  25 
of  the  University  Extension  Bureau. 

What  Public  Welfare  Means 

But  county  welfare  machinery  will  be  set  up  slowly  even  in  our  best 
counties  unless  the  public  mind  gets  busy  in  direct,  first-hand  ways 
with  its  social  problems,  and  spies  them  out  to  the  last  detail.  Public 
welfare  is  a  vague  phrase.  It  conveys  little  meaning  or  no  meaning  at 
all  to  the  mind  of  most  people;  and  this  is  particularly  true  of  dwellers 
in  sparsely  settled  rural   counties.     Even   the  older  phrase,   charities 


In  North  Carolina  165 

and  corrections,  meant  little  more  than  (1)  the  small  company  of 
wretched  souls  in  the  poorhouse,  (2)  the  larger  number  receiving  small 
sums  monthly  from  the  county  commissioners — -how  much  larger  nobody 
knows  as  a  rule,  and  (3)  the  occasional  occupants  of  the  county  jails — 
a  third  of  them  empty  at  any  one  time,  and  most  of  them  empty  a  full 
half  of  the  year.  Paupers  and  prisoners  are  an  inescapable  affliction 
and  not  a  social  problem.  This  and  little  more  is  about  all  that  chari- 
ties and  corrections  has  meant  to  the  civic  mind  in  any  county,  and  this 
is  at  present  the  largest  meaning  that  public  welfare  has  for  the  public 
in  general  today. 

Civic  consciousness  and  civic  responsibility  in  county  affairs  is  feeble 
enough;  but  social  consciousness,  social  responsibility,  and  organized 
social  effort  by  counties  can  hardly  be  said  to  exist  at  all  in  the  United 
States.  County  organization — civic  and  social — is  the  very  weakest 
link  in  American  democracy.  Our  essential  weakness  in  North  Caro- 
lina lies  in  the  fact  that  four-fifths  of  all  our  people  live  in  widely  scat- 
tered country  homes  and  therefore  feel  a  minimum  responsibility  for  the 
conditions  that  result  in  poor  government  and  that  lay  heavy  economic 
and  social  penalties  upon  the  county  at  large. 

The  meaning  of  public  welfare  needs  an  immense  enlargement  in  the 
public  mind.  The  stupidest  man  among  us  must  be  brought  to  see  that 
it  concerns  the  curse  of  illiteracy  and  near-illiteracy,  wholesome  com- 
munity recreation  and  commercial  amusements,  preventable  disease 
and  postponable  death,  feeble-mindedness  and  its  causes,  insanity, 
poverty  and  its  manifold  relationships,  orphan  children  in  poor  homes 
whose  fathers  are  dead,  and  orphan  children  in  unsafe  homes  whose 
fathers  and  mothers  are  alive,  the  placing-out  of  children  and  their 
guardianship,  wayward  children,  children  maimed  and  lame  in  body 
and  brain,  the  families  of  convicts  in  prison,  returned  convicts,  prisoners 
on  parole,  men  wanting  jobs  and  jobs  wanting  men;  that  it  concerns 
jail  and  chain-gang  conditions,  poorhouse  and  pauper  conditions,  juve- 
nile courts  and  the  oversight  of  juvenile  probationers,  fallen  men  and 
fallen  women  alike,  and  the  whole  subject  of  social  hygiene;  that  it 
concerns  the  conditions,  causes,  consequences,  and  cure  of  social  ills 
of  every  sort;  that  it  sweeps  the  whole  immense  field  of  social  science, 
theoretic  and  applied. 

To  build  a  meaning  of  this  adequate  and  needful  sort  in  the  public 
mind,  to  stir  the  consciences  and  wills  of  men  and  women  into  activity, 
and  to  erect  suitable  institutions  in  North  Carolina  county  by  county 
is  an  exceedingly  difficult  but  an  exceedingly  necessary  task.  We  are 
confronted  by  a  gigantic  educational  campaign  that  challenges  our 
finest  purposes  and  our  most  devoted  efforts  the  next  quarter  century; 
and  our  women  must  lead  in  it  because  public  welfare  work  is  social 
housekeeping  and  men  lack  the  housekeeping  instincts. 


166  County  Government 

Public  Welfare  Details 

For  the  sake  of  simplicity  I  itemize  the  things  that  a  county  welfare 
agent  can  do  under  the  direction  of  the  state  hoard,  that  ought  to  be 
done  in  every  county,  and  that  are  never  likely  to  be  done  until  it 
becomes  somebody's  stated  duty  to  do  them. 

1.  In  conjunction  with  the  county  school  superintendent,  he  could 
number,  name,  and  locate  in  reliable  records  the  illiterate,  the  deaf,  the 
blind,  the  feeble-minded,  the  crippled  and  deformed,  the  wayward  and 
neglected,  the  orphans  needing  homes  and  the  homes  offering  shelter 
and  loving  care  to  orphans,  the  families  of  convicts,  returned  convicts, 
prisoners  on  probation  or  parole,  the  insane  and  the  epileptic.  At 
present  there  are  no  such  records  in  any  county  of  the  state.  Such 
census  data  must  be  assembled  in  order  that  the  people  of  a  county  can 
know  and  realize  what  the  job  of  public  welfare  is,  how  big  it  is,  and 
what  the  details  are. 

2.  He  could  take  into  proper  guardianship  the  dependents,  the  defec- 
tives, the  neglected,  and  the  delinquents  resident  in  a  county,  and  in 
a  sympathetic  way  urge  into  state  institutions  those  that  ought  to  be 
under  the  care  of  the  state;  and  if  state  institutions  are  not  large 
enough,  he  could  create  public  sentiment  in  favor  of  more  extended 
facilities. 

3.  He  could  be  a  parole  and  probation  oflScer  for  all  classes  and  ages 
of  wayward  people  outside  of  jails  and  reformatories  by  order  of  the 
various  authorities. 

4.  He  could  have  direct  responsible  oversight  of  the  county  home, 
the  jail,  and  the  chain-gang.  He  could  stand  as  a  guarantor  to  the 
public  that  they  are  serving  their  proper  uses,  and  no  other.  He  could 
establish  adequate  recording,  accounting,  and  reporting  systems. 

5.  He  could  study  the  proper  use  of  county  jails  and  county  homes, 
their  mischievous  mis-use  and  the  consequences  that  are  common  almost 
everywhere. 

6.  He  could  make  a  personal  study  of  every  person  or  family  applying 
for  outside  aid,  and  supervise  each  case  to  see  that  the  aid  extended 
helps  to  raise  the  recipient  to  his  feet  wherever  such  a  thing  is  possible, 
instead  of  dropping  him  into  the  mire  of  hopeless  dependency. 

7.  He  could  forestall  fraud  and  graft  on  part  of  applicants  for  poor 
relief  on  the  one  hand,  and  ignorant  waste  or  deliberate  mis-use  of 
public  funds  by  public  authorities  on  the  other. 

8.  He  could  get  feeble-minded  girls  and  women  into  state  institutions 
for  schooling  and  training  in  self-support,  and  for  protection  against 
the  immorality  that  multiplies  feeble-minded  children.  Most  of  our 
poverty  springs  from  feeble-mindedness  and  its  causes,  as  I  think  we 
shall  come  to  see. 


In  North  Carolina  167 

9.  He  could  study  in  each  county  the  causes  of  dependency,  delin- 
quency, and  defectiveness,  and  report  upon  these  problems  to  the  grand 
juries,  the  county  commissioners,  the  welfare  board,  and  through  the 
newspapers  to  the  public,  and  thus  develop  the  intelligent  sentiment 
that  is  so  urgently  needed  in  North  Carolina  in  order  to  attack  our 
various  social  problems  effectively.  He  could  be  the  local  diagnostician 
and  sanitarian  in  social  matters,  and  the  local  agency  of  education, 
stimulation,  and  guidance  in  all  organized  social  effort.  He  could  pack 
the  technical  word  "social"  full  of  its  proper  significance.  And  this  is 
necessary,  because  I  constantly  run  across  people  who  think  that  it 
refers  in  particular  to  society  as  we  find  it  displayed  in  the  newspapers, 
or  to  social  equality,  or  to  socialism  of  the  sort  that  offends  the  normal- 
minded. 

10.  And— what  is  fundamentally  important— he  could  develop,  or- 
ganize, and  direct  wholesome  recreation  in  the  countryside  and  give 
it  a  proper  place  in  the  rural  mind.  The  law  indeed  charges  him  with 
this  particular  duty.  Our  country  people  in  America,  in  marked  con- 
trast with  the  farm  folks  of  the  old  world  countries,  are  settled  in  vast 
areas  in  widely  scattered  homes.  Life  is  solitary  and  tends  to  be  lonely 
and  sombre.  Work  is  a  conscious  necessity,  while  fun  and  frolic  are 
essentially  wicked — such  is  the  firmly  established  connection  of  ideas 
in  the  countryside.  Rural  America  needs  to  be  anointed  with  the  oil 
of  gladness  that  David  celebrates  in  the  Psalms.  People  that  do  not 
play  together  never  learn  to  work  together;  and  if  they  cannot  or  will 
not  work  together  and  pull  together  here  on  earth,  neither  shall  they 
dwell  together  in  heaven — a  saying  that  you  will  find  in  Timothy  10:16. 

Is  there,  then,  anything  for  a  county  welfare  officer  to  do?  There  is 
more  to  do  that  ought  to  be  done  than  any  ten  such  officers  can  do  in 
any  county.  And  fortunately  so;  it  gives  a  wise  officer  a  chance  to  call 
to  his  side  and  to  involve  as  volunteers  in  his  purposes  all  the  civic  and 
social-minded  men  and  women  of  the  county.  He  needs  them,  and  they 
need  the  work,  and  in  it  they  are  sure  to  find  the  more  abundant  life 
that  the  Master  came  to  earth  to  bring  to  the  sons  and  daughters  of  men. 

Religion  Wortli  the  Name 

Suppose  we  had  in  every  county  of  North  Carolina  a  body  of  closely 
Integrated  social  servants  composed  of  (1)  the  school  board  with  its 
superintendent  and  supervisors,  (2)  an  agricultural  board  with  its 
home  and  farm  extension  agents,  (3)  a  public  health  board  with  its 
whole-time  health  officer,  its  public  health  nurses,  its  clinics  and  dis- 
pensaries, (4)  a  public  welfare  board  and  its  secretary  charged  with 
specific  social  concerns,  and  (5)  a  ministerial  board  composed  of  all 
the  preachers  of  all  the  churches  busy  stamping  every  common  effort 
with  the  ultimate  values  of  life  and  destiny,  time  and  eternity— suppose 
I  say,  the  civic  and  social  mind  of  North  Carolina  were  organized  and 


168  County  Government 

federated  in  this  way!  If  only  it  could  be  so,  and  it  can,  then  what  an 
era  of  democratic  wholesomeness  and  effectiveness  we  should  enter 
upon,  and  how  rapidly  our  beloved  state  would  move  to  the  fore  in  the 
new  social  order  that  is  even  now  breaking  upon  the  world. 

Man  freely  self-surrendered  to  his  fellow  kind  and  whole-heartedly 
given  in  organized  effort  to  the  common  good  is  the  dream  we  dream. 
Man  dedicated  to  the  state  is  Prussianism;  man  dedicated  to  humanity 
is  the  soul  of  democracy;  man  dedicated  to  humanity,  in  His  name,  is 
the  last  word  in  any  kind  of  religion  that  is  worth  calling  Christian. 
The  kingdom  of  heaven  doubtless  means  much  more  than  this,  but  I 
am  sure  that  it  ought  never  to  mean  less. 


In  North  Carolina  169 


CHAPTER  XXII 
County  Homes  and  Outside  Relief  in  North  Carolina 

R.  F.  Beasley,  Secretary  of  the  North  Carolina  State  Board  of 
Public  Welfare 

"The  poor  ye  have  always  with  you."  This  statement  of  plain  fact 
made  by  Jesus  seems  to  be  about  as  troublesome  now  as  it  was  in  his 
day.  Only  now  we  are  more  conscious  of  the  fact.  It  has  been  the 
custom  of  the  world  to  take  the  statement  of  Jesus  as  a  piece  of  final 
prophecy  and  an  excuse  for  almost  any  condition  that  might  exist  in 
any  generation.  But  this  is  no  longer  the  position  of  thinking  men 
on  the  subject.  The  time  has  come  when  we  must  write  new  defini- 
tions of  the  word  poor. 

What  relation  has  civilization  to  the  poor?  That  is  the  question 
mark  written  large  across  the  page  of  progress.  In  his  excellent  book 
on  The  Almshouse,  Mr.  Alexander  Johnson  casually  remarks:  "Un- 
fortunately, as  a  general  rule  the  number  of  paupers  to  provide  for 
varies  directly  with  a  given  city  or  state.  In  a  given  state  the  county 
with  the  most  paupers  in  proportion  to  the  whole  population  is  rarely, 
or  never,  the  county  with  the  least  wealth,  either  absolutely  or  rela- 
tively to  the  population." 

The  Causes  of  Poverty  mnst  be  Studied 

Thus  it  appears  that  we  not  only  always  have  the  poor  with  us  but 
always  an  increasing  number,  not  only  actually  but  relatively  to  popu- 
lation. What  shall  be  the  answer  to  the  important  question  thus 
raised?  Are  we  going  to  continue  to  blink  the  question  and  merely 
enlarge  our  facilities,  or  are  we  going  to  find  an  answer?  It  is  the 
spirit  of  modern  times  to  at  least  seek  answers  and  to  surrender  to 
nothing  simply  because  we  find  it  here.  Sooner  or  later  we  will  put 
the  question  of  poverty  into  the  laboratory  and  analyze  it. 

In  the  days  of  alchemy  it  was  naively  assumed  that  earth,  fire  and 
water  were  the  three  ultimate  substances.  Now  we  are  living  scien- 
tifically in  the  day  of  chemistry  and  not  of  alchemy,  but  in  social 
science  we  are  yet  in  the  period  of  alchemy.  We  must  soon  reach  the 
period  of  social  chemistry.  The  words  poor  and  pauper  must  be  the 
first  words  to  be  put  into  the  test  tube.  The  results  will  be  startling, 
for  we  shall  find  that  we  have  been  operating  on  blind  assumptions 
that  should  have  no  place  in  the  present  day.  That  assumption  is  that 
it  is  natural  for  people  to  be  unable  to  take  care  of  themselves,  when 
the  truth  is  that  it  is  the  most  unnatural  thing  in  the  world.  You 
cannot   imagine   an   increasing   number   of   squirrels   being   unable   to 


170  County  Government 

take  care  of  themselves  in  a  region  where  the  nut  crop  was  always  on 
the  increase  faster  than  the  increase  of  the  squirrels.  Yet  with  the 
increase  of  wealth  we  find  a  continuing  larger  increase  of  people  un- 
able to  take  care  of  themselves. 

Now,  if  squirrel  society  began  to  be  productive  of  causes  that  pro- 
duced blind  squirrels  and  lame  squirrels  and  senseless  squirrels,  and 
insane  squirrels  and  all  manner  of  weak  squirrels,  we  could  under- 
stand that  it  was  up  to  squirrel  statesmen  to  find  out  what  was  doing 
this,  in  order  to  remove  the  cause  and  go  back  to  the  good  old  days 
when  all  squirrels  were  able  to  take  care  of  themselves.  Why  shouldn't 
we  expect  human  statesmen  to  be  as  wise  as  squirrel  statesmen  should 
be?  They  are  not  so  yet,  but  the  wish  is  father  to  the  thought  that 
they  will  be  some  day. 

The  mentally  and  physically  sick,  lame,  halt,  blind,  deaf,  weak, 
and  plain  poor  make  up  the  population  which  we  refer  to  as  poor 
or  paupers.  These  are  the  substratum  of  the  social  order  and  the 
line  of  cleavage  between  this  stratum  and  the  next  one  above  is  not 
very  clearly  marked.  Indeed  it  is  so  poorly  marked  that  the  indi- 
vidual in  the  upper  one  by  the  merest  stumble  will  drop  down  into 
the  lower.  In  fact,  statistics  say  that  they  are  dropping  faster  and 
faster.  And  the  lower  order  being  allowed  to  breed  its  kind,  we  have 
the  poor  always  with  us  in  larger  and  larger  numbers. 

And  while  we  are  investigating  we  shall  find  that  prisons  and  in- 
sane asylums  and  orphanges  are  only  different  phases  of  the  same 
questions.  Pauperism  is  the  apex  of  two  converging  lines  of  causes. 
The  one  line  is  the  cumulative  effect  of  preventable  physical  diseases. 
The  other  is  the  line  of  preventable  economic  diseases.  It  has  been 
said  that  the  training  of  a  child  should  begin  a  hundred  years  before 
its  birth.  When  the  public  recognizes  that  pauperism  is  a  result  of 
preventable  though  oblique  causes  these  causes  will  be  searched  out 
and  eradicated.  The  reason  that  little  relative  progress  has  been  made 
in  two  thousand  years  is  that  this  truth  has  not  been  recognized. 
When  this  is  done  there  will  be  some  pauperism  left  but  not  much. 
Legitimate  need  can  then  be  cared  for  as  it  should  be.  So  much  for 
the  general  subject.    Now  for  conditions  in  North  Carolina. 

Poorhouses  and  Paupers  in  North  Carolina 

County  commissioners  have  the  duty  of  providing  for  the  poor, 
either  in  county  homes  or  in  such  way  as  they  deem  best.  The  courts 
have  said:  "The  general  duty  is  imposed  of  providing  for  the  poor; 
the  place,  method,  and  extent  of  relief  are  invested  in  the  judgment 
and  discretion  of  the  county  commissioners." 

Until  the  year  1917  the  work  in  counties  has  been  done  by  voluntary 
workers  serving  as  county  visitors,  while  the  State  Board  of  Charities 


In  North  Carolina  171 

had  general  supervisory  powers,  and  neither  the  money  or  machinery 
for  closer  supervision  was  available.  Its  power  is  still  recommendatory 
but  we  are  now  getting  into  closer  touch  with  them. 

We  have  not  been  able  so  far  to  get  complete  statistics  of  county 
homes  or  outside  aid.  Prom  such  statistics  as  could  be  gathered  we 
have  figured  that  previous  to  1917  for  a  five  year  average  the  counties 
spend  more  than  $200,000  annually  in  maintaining  homes  and  in  aid 
to  the  outside  poor,  about  equally  divided  between  the  two.  The 
tendency  is  to  increase  the  latter.  Of  the  one  hundred  counties  84 
have  occupied  homes,  five  have  no  homes,  and  eleven  have  homes  gen- 
erally not  occupied.  Four  counties  have  homes  with  an  annual  popu- 
lation on  a  five-year  average  of  over  40  inmates;  6  with  an  average 
population  between  30  and  40;  20  with  an  average  between  20  and  30; 
26  with  an  average  between  10  and  20;  and  32  with  an  average  between 
1  and  ten.  The  average  yearly  number  aided  outside  the  homes  the 
same  year  was  3,512.  Between  the  races  the  blacks  average  about 
one  third  in  the  state. 

The  population  of  the  homes  includes  the  lame,  the  halt,  the  blind, 
the  feeble-minded,  the  epileptic  and  the  human  drift  wood  of  every 
kind.  There  are  few  who  are  there  simply  from  normal  poverty.  No 
adequate  financial  figures  can  be  secured.  The  estimate  of  more  than 
$200,000  per  year  means  money  paid  out,  and  does  not  take  into  con- 
sideration value  of  food  crops  which  in  some  cases  are  large.  About 
13,000  acres  of  land  belong  to  the  homes,  one  third  of  which  perhaps  is 
in  some  state  of  cultivation.  County  homes  in  North  Carolina  are  not 
greatly  different  from  those  in  other  states.  The  differences  are  in 
degree,  not  in  kind. 

Lines  of  Progress 

The  line  of  effort  has  been  and  is  to  get  certain  classes  out  of  the 
homes  and  make  them  in  reality  a  refuge  for  the  old  and  infirm.  The 
classes  which  are  sought  to  be  taken  from  the  county  homes  and  put 
under  state  care  are  prisoners,  normal  children,  deaf,  dumb,  and  blind 
children,  the  feeble-minded  who  need  restraint,  the  epileptic,  and  the 
insane.  Some  states  have  gone  further  in  this  regard  than  others  by 
providing  larger  state  institutions.  But  no  state  has  yet  gone  the 
whole  length.  If  we  could  so  enlarge  our  state  institutions  as  to 
take  out  of  the  county  homes  all  these  classes,  the  tendency  to  increase 
outside  aid  would  be  checked,  because  those  really  needing  charity 
could  be  sent  to  the  homes  and  those  upon  whom  charity  is  worse  than 
wasted  could  be  cut  off. 

The  worst  feature  of  the  county  home  now  is  that  many  of  them  are 
breeding  places  for  the  propagation  of  feeble-mindedness.  No  feeble- 
minded woman  or  girl  of  child  bearing  age  ought  to  be  allowed  to  re- 
main without  restraint.    There  is  practically  no  restraint  in  the  county 


172  County  Government 

homes  and  in  some  institutions  where  families  of  feeble-minded  persons 
are  kept,  the  women  regularly  bearing  children  like  themselves,  either 
legitimate  or  otherwise.  And  marriage  of  inmates  who  are  feeble- 
minded is  not  uncommon.  These  feeble-minded  strains  will  continue 
to  populate  county  homes,  jails,  prisons,  chain-gangs,  orphanages,  houses 
of  ill  fame  and  every  other  undesirable  walk  of  life.  The  day  is  com- 
ing when  society  must  protect  itself. 

Until  the  public  understands  the  real  meaning  of  the  county  home 
and  the  population  gathered  there,  there  can  be  little  improvement. 
The  State  Board  of  Charities  and  Public  Welfare  will  attempt  to  help 
improve  the  administration,  to  point  out  better  and  easier  ways  to 
manage  the  inmates,  and  to  set  some  standards  for  improvements  in 
the  conditions  as  we  have  them. 

The  county  commissioners  have  been  empowered  to  create  county 
boards  of  public  welfare  with  a  paid  superintendent,  one  of  whose 
duties  shall  be  assisting  in  the  distribution  of  the  poor  funds.  Such 
an  officer  can  be  of  untold  aid.  He  is  not  to  have  charge  of  the  homes, 
but  to  see  that  they  are  properly  managed  and  that  the  outside  poor 
relief  is  what  it  should  be.  At  present  this  is  possibly  as  much  an  evil 
as  a  good.  The  true  principle  of  outside  aid  is  that  it  be  given  tem- 
porarily and  in  critical  cases  and  the  recipient  be  aided  to  assume 
his  own  support  as  quickly  as  possible.  This  the  county  superintendent 
would  do.  As  at  present  administered  the  aid  is  general,  continuous, 
and  pauperizing  in  its  effect,  where  it  is  not  merely  petty  graft.  In 
other  states  the  correct  principle  for  aid  of  both  kinds  is  that  it  be 
given  and  administered  by  the  local  bodies  but  supervised  by  some 
state  agency.  We  now  have  the  necessary  laws  for  this  in  North 
Carolina,  and  in  this  respect  have  made  a  definite  forward  step. 

Lest  my  feeling  of  hopelessness,  until  the  public  approaches  the  ques- 
tion in  a  far  wider  spirit  than  it  has  done  yet,  seem  unjustified,  it  is 
only  necessary  to  point  to  the  history  of  poor  relief  in  this  country 
and  in  England.  In  England,  whence  we  derive  our  ideas  and  customs, 
they  have  been  tugging  at  the  problem  along  present  lines  for  nearly 
four  hundred  years  and  have  made  about  the  same  progress  as  the 
operator  of  a  treadmill  makes. 

We  can,  and  shall  assist  the  local  authorities  to  make  improvements 
in  the  administration  of  the  business  of  the  homes  and  the  care  of  the 
inmates.  The  farms  ought  to  be  better  managed  and  made  to  produce 
more.  Better  lighting,  heating  and  water  plants  should  be  installed. 
Better  records  should  be  kept  and  accurate  bookkeeping  established. 
Most  of  all  we  need,  and  shall  obtain  as  soon  as  possible,  an  accurate 
census  of  the  populations  so  that  we  may  know  just  how  many  of  each 
class  there  are  in  the  state  in  order  that  suitable  legislation  may  be 
proposed  from  time  to  time. 


In  North  Caeolina  173 


CHAPTER  XXIII 
County  Care  of  Children 

Dr.  Hastings  H.  Haet,  Director  of  the  Department  of  Child  Helping, 
Russell  Sage  Foundation,  New  York  City 

Lacking  the  manuscript  of  Dr.  Hart's  address,  we  are  able  to  give 
only  the  details  in  brief  as  he  developed  his  subject. 

States  and  counties  now  care  for  many  dependent,  neglected,  and 
delinquent  children  formerly  cared  for  by  private  asylums  and  societies, 
said  he. 

Some  believe  that  they  care  for  all;  but  it  is  a  good  thing  for  private 
agencies  to  do  this  work.  States  and  counties,  however,  should  main- 
tain guardianship  to  ensure  proper  care,  training,  education,  and  oppor- 
tunity. 

As  a  rule  states  and  counties  are  becoming  responsible  for  the  care 
and  training  of  delinquent  and  defective  children  including  the  deaf, 
blind,  feeble-minded  and  epileptic  and  crippled. 

The  division  of  labor  between  state  and  county  is  not  yet  adjusted. 
In  Massachusetts  and  New  Jersey  the  state  assumes  the  greater  re- 
sponsibility. In  Indiana  and  Tennessee,  the  counties  assume  the 
greater  burden. 

In  general  the  state  is  building  and  maintaining  reformatories  for 
delinquent  boys  and  girls,  schools  for  the  deaf  and  blind,  asylums  for 
the  feeble-minded  and  epileptics  and  hospitals  for  the  cripples.  It  is 
also  becoming  responsible  for  the  watchcare  of  children  under  care  of 
counties  or  of  private  societies. 

The  counties  are  undertaking  "case  work,"  studying  the  condition 
and  needs  of  the  children,  establishing  medical  and  psychological 
clinics,  hospitals  and  dispensaries,  and  organizing  health  work  and 
other  preventive  movements. 

They  maintain  juvenile  courts,  detention  homes  for  children  await- 
ing trial,  probation  officers  and,  in  a  number  of  states,  like  New  York, 
Indiana,  and  Minnesota,  are  establishing  county  boards  of  child  wel- 
fare. 

Many  counties  now  employ  competent  trained  workers  at  good 
salaries  for  this  service. 


174  County  Government 


CHAPTER  XXIV 
Our  Feeble-Minded,  Epileptic,  and  Insane 

Dr.  Albekt  Anderson,  Superintendent  Central  Hospital  for  the  Insane, 

Raleigh,  N.  C. 

The  feeble-minded  in  institutions  in  the  United  States  increased  from 
20,731  to  37,220  or  79.54  per  cent  during  the  seven  year  period  from 
January  1,  1910  to  January  1,  1917.  In  1910,  seventeen  states  reported 
no  feeble-minded  in  institutions;  in  1917  all  but  four  states  were  mak- 
ing some  institutional  provision  for  this  class.  In  1910  the  Federal 
Census  Bureau  estimated  that  not  over  one  tenth  of  the  feeble-minded 
in  the  United  States  were  being  cared  for  in  institutions.  On  the  same 
basis  and  assuming  that  the  increase  in  feeble-minded  has  been  at  the 
same  rate  as  the  general  population,  there  is  now  in  institutions  about 
one-sixth  of  the  total  feeble-minded  population;  but  this  is,  of  course, 
an  indefinite  estimate  and  no  data  have  as  yet  been  secured  to  sup- 
port it. 

I  have  the  following  letter  from  Dr.  C.  Banks  McNairy,  Superintend- 
ent of  the  Caswell  Training  School  for  the  Feeble-minded  at  Kin- 
ston,  N.  C: 

"During  1917  we  cared  for  188  children.  Our  maintenance  fund  was 
$45,000.  At  the  end  of  the  year  we  had  no  deficit.  The  average  cost 
per  capita  for  maintenance  was  $216.  We  now  have  190  children,  five 
more  to  be  admitted  for  March.  Our  maintenance  fund  this  year  is 
$45,000.  We  have  193  applications  of  legal  age  on  file  for  admission. 
There  are  about  30  who  are  too  old  to  come  within  the  legal  age 
limit.  There  are  quite  a  few  in  the  state  without  homes  and  no  one 
to  provide  for  them,  who  should  be  in  an  institution  of  this  kind.  We 
have  had  three  personal  requests  for  admission,  stating  they  were 
mental  defectives  and  unable  to  provide  for  themselves.  Two  were 
from  men  and  one  from  a  woman. 

"In  one  county  there  has  been  reported  to  us  56  of  school  age  and 
we  believe  there  are  many  more  in  and  above  this  age,  who  should  be 
in  our  institution.  I  presume  a  very,  very  conservative  estimate  would 
be  an  average  of  30  in  every  county." 

Our  EoU  of  Unfortunates 

1.  The  feeble-minded  are  estimated  by  the  authorities  to  number  from 
214  to  3  per  thousand  of  population,  said  he,  or  between  6,000  and 
7,200  of  all  ages  in  North  Carolina.     The  estimate  is  probably  too  low, 


In  North  Carolina  175 

as  a  recent  survey  in  South  Carolina  shows  a  rate  of  6  per  thousand 
and  the  recent  army  draft  a  rate  of  14  per  thousand.  About  a  fourth 
of  the  feeble-minded  are  of  school  age  from  6  to  21,  and  on  the  lowest 
estimate  the  number  to  be  cared  for  in  our  school  for  the  feeble-minded 
at  Kinston  is  from  1,500  to  1,800.  The  number  actually  there  in  1917 
was  188,  or  just  about  a  tenth  of  the  children  who  really  ought  to  be 
there.  The  number  applying  for  admission  was  193.  Manifestly  the 
institution  is  too  small,  and  the  fund  of  $45,000  a  year  is  inadequate. 
North  Carolina  has  made  a  creditable  beginning  in  caring  for  feeble- 
minded children,  but  we  must  go  on  in  large  hearted  generosity.  Seven- 
teen states  have  no  schools  for  these  unfortunates. 

It  is  simply  impossible  in  view  of  the  present  high  cost  of  living  and 
the  uncertainty  and  high  cost  of  labor  to  make  an  estimate  as  to  what 
it  will  take  to  run  our  institution  even  for  this  year,  much  less  for  the 
requirements  that  would  be  needed  to  protect,  segregate  and  train  all 
of  the  feeble-minded  in  North  Carolina. 

If  we  had  the  proper  equipment  in  the  way  of  industrial  buildings, 
work  shop,  etc.,  there  ought  to  be  now  in  this  institution  500  pupils, 
which  would  necessitate  an  expenditure  for  maintenance,  roughly  esti- 
mated, $140,000  to  $150,000. 

2.  The  State  Colony  for  Epileptics  is  established  in  connection  with 
the  State  Hospital  for  the  Insane  at  Raleigh,  N.  C. 

Capacity  for  epilepitics  180 

Number  on  hand    213 

Applications  on  file:  males  95,  females  8 — total 103 

Nobody  knows  the  number  of  epileptics  in  this  or  any  other  state. 
The  number  in  institutions  in  the  United  States  in  1917  was  10,801. 
Facilities  need  to  be  enlarged  a  full  third  to  meet  the  immediate  de- 
mands. 

We  have  Informed  people  who  make  inquiries  that  we  have  no  room; 
thus  some  have  not  applied  who  otherwise  would  have  done  so.  Some 
outside  epileptics  have  applied  for  consultation,  after  which  they  were 
advised  that  they  could  not  be  admitted  for  lack  of  room.  We  have  no 
applications  on  file  for  the  latter  two  classes.  We  need  accommoda- 
tions for  200  patients  to  meet  the  present  need  of  the  epileptic  depart- 
ment. We  would  advise  the  erection  of  an  assembly  hall  that  could 
be  used  for  the  amusement  of  both  sexes.  This  hall  could  also  be 
used  for  religious  services  and  as  a  work  room.  The  colonies  are  too 
far  from  the  main  building  for  these  patients  to  attend  services  or  to 
enjoy  the  amusement  that  other  patients  have,  especially  during  bad 
weather.  Besides,  they  sometimes  have  one  of  their  convulsive  seizures 
when  they  assemble,  which  is  quite  a  discomfort  to  the  insane  patients 
as  well  as  a  humiliation  to  the  epileptics. 


176  County  Government 

The  Increase  of  Insane  in  Institutions  Compared  with  the  Increase 
of  General  Population 

3.  The  insane  under  hospital  care  in  the  United  States  in  1917  were 
234,000,  which,  by  the  way,  is  almost  exactly  the  number  of  students 
in  our  colleges  and  universities.  The  insane  in  our  four  state  hospitals 
in  1910  were  2,522.  The  applications  increase  steadily  year  by  year, 
as  our  civilization  becomes  more  and  more  complex;  which  mean  the 
necessity  for  more  floor  space,  more  extended  equipments  and  facilities, 
and  a  larger  staff  of  physicians,  nurses  and  attendants. 

According  to  estimates  of  the  Federal  Census  Bureau,  the  population 
of  the  United  States  increased  from  91,972,266  in  1910  to  102,826,309  on 
1917,  an  increase  of  11.80  per  cent.  The  insane  in  institutions  (accord- 
ing to  the  Federal  Census  of  1910,  and  the  census  of  the  National  Com- 
mittee for  Mental  Hygiene  of  1917)  increased  from  187,791  to  234,055, 
an  increase  of  24.64  per  cent.  The  increase  of  the  insane  in  institu- 
tions was  relatively  greater  than  that  of  the  general  population  in  every 
state  except  Arizona,  Kansas,  Mississippi,  Nevada  and  South  Carolina. 

In  North  Carolina  during  this  period  the  increase  of  general  popula- 
tion was  9.62  per  cent,  while  the  increase  of  insane  in  our  institutions 
was  36.64  per  cent. 

The  difference  in  rate  of  increase  of  the  general  population  and  of 
the  insane  may  be  due  to  several  causes,  namely:  (1)  Marked  addi- 
tional institutional  provisions  for  the  insane  has  been  made  in  some 
of  the  states,  this  has  caused  the  commitment  to  institutions  of  many 
cases  formerly  cared  for  in  homes;  (2)  As  institutions  for  the  insane 
improve  they  become  less  dreaded  by  the  public  and  more  mild  cases 
are  admitted;  (3)  Laws  permitting  voluntary  admission  to  institutions 
have  been  passed  in  several  states;  (4)  There  is  a  continual  accumula- 
tion of  chronic  cases  in  the  hospitals. 

What  Hospitals  Should  Do 

The  authorities  of  our  state  hospitals  should  not  sit  idly  down  and 
wait  for  the  mental  shipwrecks  to  be  washed  upon  their  shores,  any 
more  than  life  savers  should  remain  on  the  beach  viewing,  undis- 
turbed, the  vessel  with  its  precious  freight  of  humanity  being  torn  and 
lashed  to  pieces  by  the  fury  of  the  storm,  to  dash  against  a  rock  and 
become  an  unsalvageable  wreck.  The  trained  observer  sees  the  danger 
threatening,  rushes  to  the  rescue,  throws  out  the  life  line,  and  plants 
a  beacon  to  guide  others.  It  is  the  duty  of  a  hospital  for  mental  dis- 
eases to  reach  the  patient  early  while  there  is  yet  hope  and  prevent 
ultimate  disaster. 

The  hospital  is  only  the  central  organization,  the  headquarters  from 
which  issue  activities  that  are  to  extend  into  every  home  throughout 


In  ISTorth  Carolina  177 

the  length  and  breadth  of  the  state,  and  thereby  rescue  mentally  in- 
adequate and  maladjusted  individuals  before  they  develop  a  condition 
necessitating  institutional  care  for  long  periods,  often  the  remainder  of 
their  lives.  If  we  can  reach  the  mentally  sick  in  their  incipiency, 
and  stay  the  progress  of  mental  disease,  we  can  greatly  reduce  the 
period  of  hospital  residence. 

The  increasing  complexy  of  our  civilization  makes  it  imperative  that 
we  adopt  the  best  methods  of  arresting  the  alarming  increase  of  the 
mentally  diseased  and  relieving  the  congestion  of  our  present  capacity. 
Our  failure  in  the  past  to  attack  these  problems  with  an  eye  to  their 
prevention  has  laid  heavy  burdens  upon  the  taxpaying  public.  To 
delay  longer  would  lay  us  open  to  a  grave  charge  of  a  dereliction  of  our 
duty. 

Preventing  Mental  Disease 

Just  as  we  are  learning  to  prevent  physical  disease,  said  Dr.  Ander- 
son, we  are  learning  to  prevent  mental  ill-health,  and  this  is  the  in- 
spiring new  field  of  effort  that  the  authorities  of  insane  hospitals  are 
now  entering.  A  clinic  has  been  established  for  this  purpose  on  Dix 
Hill  in  Raleigh,  to  examine  those  who  are  suffering  from  nervous  or 
mental  troubles,  and  are  threatened  with  insanity.  The  examination 
and  advice  are  free.  A  special  building  has  been  erected  for  this 
purpose,  but  is  not  yet  equipped.  Funds  are  needed  for  scientific  appli- 
ances and  to  support  an  adequate  staff  of  specialists. 

Manifestly,  all  this  work  of  examination  and  advice  could  not  be 
done  in  any  one  central  oflBce.  We  need  mental  health  clinics  at 
strategic  points  throughout  the  state,  all  operating  under  the  guidance 
of  state  headquarters.  This  new  work  depends  for  its  development 
in  North  Carolina,  upon  a  rapid  diffusion  of  popular  intelligence  about 
the  proper  care  and  treatment  of  children  in  our  homes  and  schools, 
and  upon  the  liberality  of  our  taxpayers  toward  the  prevention  of 
mental  ill-health  among  people  of  all  ages,  occupations,  conditions,  and 
classes. 

In  no  other  way  can  we  prevent  feeble-mindedness  and  insanity,  de- 
crease the  number  of  such  unfortunates,  lessen  their  population  in  pub- 
lic institutions,  decrease  the  periods  of  hospital  residence,  and  the 
burden  of  public  expense  on  their  account. 

We  have  established  a  clinic  at  the  Central  Hospital,  for  the  advice 
and  guidance  of  all  those  suffering  with  nervous  or  mental  troubles. 
This  clinic,  it  is  believed,  will  be  of  direct  value  to  every  social  agency 
in  the  state,  and  v/ill  be  the  means  of  bringing  the  state  into  friendly 
relations  with  the  hospital  which  definitely  gives  its  services  to  aid 
the  state  in  its  mental  health  problems. 

The  ever  increasing  number  of  insane  with  the  consequent  over 
crowding  of  existing  hospitals  for  their  care,  and  the  heavy  burden  of 
12 


178  County  Government 

taxation  that  the  public  has  to  bear  as  a  result,  have  caused  a  number 
of  states  to  establish  in  connection  with  their  hospital  a  mental  clinic 
where  trained  psychiatrists  are  accessible  for  consultation  by  indi- 
viduals of  average  means. 

This  step  was  taken  for  the  purpose  of  preventing  mental  diseases. 
By  recognizing  and  dealing  with  cases  of  mental  ill-health  early  many 
of  them  can  be  prevented  from  developing  into  a  more  serious  condition 
necessitating  their  confinement,  the  expense  of  their  maintenance,  and 
the  loss  that  their  disability  indirectly  causes.  There  are  many  cases 
known  as  peculiar  persons  whose  conduct  is  not  considered  normal, 
or  slightly  below  normal,  which  if  allowed  to  go  on  will  later  develop  a 
graver  condition  requiring  restraint  or  custodial  care. 

The  central  clinic  makes  the  psychiatrist  accessible  to  the  middle 
class  citizen  who  cannot  afford  to  consult  the  high  priced  specialist 
and  in  consequence  goes  without  advice  or  treatment  for  mental  dis- 
ease, or  resorts  to  "quacks."  It  constitutes  as  a  rule  the  first  and  only 
source  of  diagnosis  and  treatment  of  mental  troubles  in  the  country 
districts.  It  provides  the  most  promising  instrument  for  removing 
popular  prejudice  against  the  state  hospitals  and  for  raising  the  general 
level  of  intelligence  in  the  state  with  regard  to  mental  disease.  It 
gives  the  community  its  first  opportunity  to  organize  preventative 
mental  health  work. 

The  prevention  of  disease  is  the  object  and  aid  of  all  medical  practice 
and  should  be  especially  so  in  the  sphere  of  nervous  and  mental  dis- 
eases. Every  safeguard  has  been  thrown  around  the  individual  to  pro- 
tect his  physical  health.  The  earliest  symptoms  of  physical  ill-health 
have  been  watched  for  and  dealt  with  immediately,  partly  because  of 
the  immediate  impending  danger  of  a  contagion  to  the  community. 
Not  so  in  the  realm  of  mental  maladies.  The  community  is  not  in  any 
danger  of  catching  mental  disease,  so  the  people  are  lulled  to  rest.  It 
is  now  time,  yes,  past  time,  for  them  to  arouse  to  the  full  realization 
that  if  something  is  not  done  at  once  to  prevent  this  fearful  economic 
strain  their  social  fabric  will  be  underrnined  and  a  menace  of  serious 
proportions  will  threaten  the  social  structure. 

Do  you  realize  that  your  criminal  is  but  the  product  of  a  mental  dis- 
order? That  poverty  is  largely  a  result  of  a  mental  deficiency.  The 
inability  of  an  individual  to  adjust  himself  to  his  environment  result- 
ing in  constant  conflict  with  himself  and  with  the  outside  world,  is 
the  cause  of  a  great  number  of  nervous  and  mental  disorders.  This 
situation  can  be  remedied  if  the  patient  can  be  seen  early  and  treated 
by  doctors  in  a  psychiatric  clinic.  The  establishment  of  these  clinics 
is  an  important  part  of  any  complete  program  for  the  care  and  cure 
of  the  insane  and  doubtless  will  be  favorably  considered  by  the  public 
at  large.     In  the  interest  of  both  humanity  and  economy  such  clinics 


In  North  Carolhsta  179 

should  undoubtedly  be  established  in  connection  with  all  our  hos- 
pitals. The  humane  care  of  the  insane  and  scientific  treatment  of 
mental  diseases  are  the  supplementary  and  interdependent  principles 
upon  which  every  state  hospital  system  must  be  based. 

To  cure  patients  as  soon  as  possible  is  the  most  economical  as  well 
as  most  scientific  and  humane  way  of  treating  them;  and  to  take  ad- 
vantage of  every  reasonable  possibility  of  cure  is  the  only  course  for 
the  state  to  pursue  when  it  makes  itself  responsible  for  the  life  and 
welfare  of  its  citizens.  Much  is  now  done,  but  much  is  done  too  late. 
The  most  critical  period  of  mental  disease  in  acute  cases  comes  in  the 
beginning.  This  is  the  time  when  the  patient  is  ordinarily  most  sus- 
ceptible to  remedial  treatment;  but  in  this  state  the  patient  is  likely 
to  spend  these  days  in  an  almshouse  or  jail,  while  waiting  for  room 
in  the  hospital  on  account  of  its  overcrowded  condition. 

Such  clinics  make  possible  the  preventive  treatment  of  mental  and 
nervous  disorders  before  actual  insanity  is  alleged  and  the  effective 
treatment  of  the  case  given  in  the  earliest  stages  of  the  diseases  before 
it  is  too  late.  The  benefit  to  people  of  the  state  through  the  establish- 
ment of  the  proposed  clinic  at  the  Central  Hospital  in  Raleigh  would 
be  almost  incalculable.  Such  a  clinic  would  help  check  the  present 
rapid  increase  in  the  number  of  insane  by  stopping  the  stream  at  its 
source. 

The  proposed  clinic,  by  preventing  and  curing  cases  of  mental  dis- 
ease at  the  beginning  and  in  early  stages,  will  prevent  their  becoming 
chronic  insane  patients  and  will  save  the  state  the  expense  of  con- 
tinuous care  of  chronic  cases  for  a  long  term  in  the  state  hospital. 

If  people  could  have  an  opportunity  to  get  advice  and  obtain  relief 
when  they  feel  themselves  threatened  with  a  nervous  and  mental 
breakdown,  many  would  remain  in  their  homes,  supporting  themselves 
and  families  instead  of  being  supported  by  the  state. 

The  state  is  attacking  the  problems  of  insanity  in  the  modern  spirit. 
Mental  disorder  is  no  longer  wholly  mysterious  except  to  the  ignorant. 
It  is  scarcely  mysterious  at  all  to  the  expert  who  looks  beneath  mani- 
festations for  causes.  The  superstition  that  was  responsible  for  the 
belief  that  the  finger  of  God  is  laid  on  the  forehead  of  the  maniac  is 
no  longer  possible  of  entertainment.  In  diseases  of  the  mind  even 
more  than  of  the  body  there  is  a  history  that  could  have  been  written 
otherwise — that  frequently  could  have  been  changed  to  the  salvation 
of  a  human  life  and  to  great  economy  on  part  of  the  state. 

No  man  in  these  days  neglects  a  small  cut,  a  suppurating  bruise,  an 
irritated  gland.  We  have  learned  physical  sanitation,  hygiene,  an- 
tiseptics. It  is  but  a  step  toward  an  equally  popular  understanding  of 
the  truth  that  there  is  mental  as  well  as  physical  infection,  and  the 
problem  is  made  easier  as  science  discovers  the  relationship  between 
the  two. 


180  County  Government 

Our  North  Carolina  hospitals  are  now  overcrowded  with  patients. 
There  is  a  constant  cry  for  place  and  attention  for  those  who  have 
been  afflicted  with  the  most  appealing  of  maladies.  The  new  clinic 
seeks  the  true  goal  of  all  merciful  science,  which  is  the  warding  off  of 
danger  when  it  first  manifests  itself.  It  is  a  startling  thing  to  think 
that  one  not  yet  insane  must  or  may  be  treated  against  becoming  so. 
Yet  the  line  is  so  close  between  sanity  and  insanity  that  a  hair  di- 
vides between  health  and  hopelessness.  As  a  touch  may  put  a  man 
over  the  brink,  so  the  uplifted  hand  of  modern  science  may  hold  him 
back. 

Encouragement  of  the  new  clinic  requires  on  part  of  those  who  need 
its  services  a  certain  courage  to  overcome  convention.  Accepting  its 
services  in  time  would  in  many  cases  mean  the  decision  that  is  so 
often  the  whole  of  wisdom.  But  this  work  to  be  successful  must  be 
extended  to  other  communities  and  it  must  have  the  cooperation  of 
social  workers,  charitable  organizations,  judges,  doctors  and  the  pub- 
lic— especially  its  leading  citizens.  The  idea  that  has  been  so  long 
held  and  still  prevails  to  a  great  extent,  that  persons  afflicted  mentally 
are  possessed  of  devils,  must  be  combated.  Any  intimation  of  mental 
unbalance  in  the  family  has  been  spoken  in  whispers  and  considered  a 
stigma  of  degeneration  or  inferiority.  Ideas  like  these  must  be  eradi- 
cated. 

Child  Welfare 

Not  alone  to  the  mentally  abnormal  must  our  work  of  education  ex- 
tend. It  must  also  include  the  normal  as  well  and  especially  children. 
They  should  benefit  by  the  knowledge  we  have  gained  in  the  past. 
Parents  and  teachers  must  be  taught  how  to  avoid  mal-adjustments  and 
mal-adaptations  and  all  that  makes  for  mental  ill  health.  The  prin- 
ciples of  mental  hygiene  far  outweigh  in  importance  those  of  physical 
hygiene.  Teachers  by  frequent  consultation  with  the  psychiatrist  would 
be  enlightened  sufficiently  to  be  able  to  recognize  the  difficulties  of  her 
pupils  and  to  direct  the  psychatrist  to  those  requiring  his  attention. 

Dr.  W.  H.  Burnham,  says:  "The  simple  principles  of  mental  hygiene 
are  sometimes  neglected  because  so  familiar;  but  they  are  as  im- 
portant as  they  are  commonplace,  since  for  the  most  part  they  are  based 
both  on  world-old  experience  and  on  scientific  study.  They  should  be 
practiced  in  every  home,  and  heeded  in  all  forms  of  school  instruction 
and  discipline.    Among  the  most  important  of  them  are  the  following: 

(1)  "Children  should  be  given  opportunity  for  normal  reaction  to 
their  natural  instincts  and  impulses — to  be  active  in  play  and  work,  to 
sleep  at  need,  to  express  their  emotions,  not  only  to  assert  themselves, 
but  to  serve  others  and  cooperate  with  them.  Function,  response  to 
stimulation,  action,  work  represent  the  first  conditions  of  mental  as 
well  as  physical  health. 


In  ISTorth  Carolina  181 

(2)  "Children  should  be  trained  to  control  their  activities  and  im- 
pulses. Natural  and  helpful  control  is  not  by  repression  and  direct 
inhibition,  but  rather  by  indirect  control.  We  control  one  muscle 
by  contraction  of  an  antagonistic  muscle;  we  control  one  action  by  do- 
ing something  else,  one  interest  by  developing  other  interests;  we  stop 
thinking  of  one  thing  by  thinking  of  something  else.  Repression 
means  a  short  circuiting  of  the  nervous  reaction  and  the  dissipation 
of  energy  within  the  nervous  system  itself,  instead  of  normal  ex- 
pression in  coordinated  activity.  Control  means  the  utilization  of  the 
nervous  energy  in  developing  a  new  and  healthful  form  of  activity 
that  may  take  the  place  of  the  unwholesome  activity.  Every  interest 
is  potentially  a  means  of  self-control. 

(3)  "Children  should  be  taught  to  concentrate  attention  on  the  one 
thing  in  hand.  Children  naturally  do  this.  When  the  school  attempts 
to  transfer  their  attention  from  their  spontaneous  interests  to  the 
more  artificial  scholastic  interests,  care  should  be  taken  not  to  weaken 
the  natural  habit  of  concentrated  attention.  Short  periods,  complete 
attention,  no  dawdling,  should  be  the  rule.  While  developing  the 
power  to  work  for  more  distant  ends,  attention  should  usually  be 
focussed  upon  the  present  situation;  and  in  the  moral  and  emotional 
training  children  should  be  taught  to  live  one  day  at  a  time,  to  settle 
their  moral  accounts  every  night,  never  to  hold  a  grudge,  never  to  let 
the  sun  go  down  upon  their  wrath,  to  look  upon  each  morning  as  a 
new  day  in  which  to  improve,  but  not  to  carry  over  their  troubles 
from  yesterday. 

(4)  "Attention  to  the  present  situation  implies  orderly  association, 
the  next  condition  of  efficiency  and  mental  health.  But  in  all  subjects 
and  all  methods  of  instruction  and  training  care  should  be  taken  to 
avoid  all  confusion  and  interference  of  association.  Disorderly  associa- 
tion means  the  beginning  of  mental  conflict  and  worry.  Tasks  should 
be  simple  and  definite,  instructions  clear  and  concrete,  decisions  and 
actions  straight-forward  and  whole-hearted.  Thus  habits  of  orderly 
association  are  developed. 

(5)  "The  fifth  condition  of  mental  health  is  an  active  attitude  in  the 
face  of  difficulties.  The  trying  situations  of  childhood,  'when  a  feller 
needs  a  friend.'  the  occasions  of  worry,  of  fear,  and  rage,  represent 
opportunity  for  the  most  important  training.  The  physiology  of  these 
emotions  indicates  the  hj'gienic  response.  An  increased  secretion  of 
adrenalin  into  the  blood  serves  as  an  emergency  call;  and  all  the 
energies  are  mobilized  for  action;  an  increase  in  the  heart  rate,  an 
increase  in  blood  pressure,  an  increase  in  sugar  secreted  from  the 
liver,  the  stopping  of  digestion,  as  a  process  of  secondary  importance 
that  can  wait  for  the  time  being — are  some  of  the  emergency  provi- 
sions.    Everything  is  prepared  for  action.     Vigorous  action  is  normal. 


182  County  Government 

The  repression  of  action  probably  means  short  circuiting  and  nervous 
strain.  Normal  activity  for  a  child  on  occasion  of  fear,  for  example, 
maybe  to  run  away  from  the  object  of  emotion  or  to  attack  it.  The 
latter  is  morally  better  and  usually  safer  and  more  healthful.  By  at- 
tempting always  to  do  the  best  thing  in  a  difficult  situation,  a  habit 
of  the  utmost  importance  for  the  mental  health  is  soon  developed. 

(6)  "The  sixth  condition  of  mental  hygiene  concerns  normal  social 
relations.  It  is  better  for  a  child's  mental  health  to  eat  and  play  and 
work  and  study  with  other  children  than  alone  or  merely  with  adults. 
To  act  with  others  as  follower  or  leader,  to  serve,  to  cooperate,  on 
occasion  to  resent,  or  to  fight,  represent  healthful  attitudes  and  health- 
ful forms  of  activity;  to  deceive,  to  act  cruelly,  to  be  suspicious,  to 
hold  a  grudge,  represent  unhealthful  as  well  as  unsocial  mental  atti- 
tudes. The  only  child  in  a  family,  and  others  who  have  lacked  oppor- 
tunity for  social  development,  should  be  given  special  training. 

(7)  "The  seventh  condition  of  healthful  mental  activity  is  a  normal 
sense  of  dependence.  This  is  perhaps  the  essential  psychological  ele- 
ment in  religion — a  sense  of  dependence  on  a  supreme  being,  or  on 
the  beneficent  laws  and  forces  of  nature,  or  on  the  moral  strength  of 
humanity,  or  the  categorical  undebatable  authority  of  duty,  or  ones 
sense  of  honor,  absolute  and  worth  while  for  its  own  sake.  If  not 
tampered  with,  this  seems  to  develop  normally  in  children;  first  as 
dependence  on  one's  own  parents,  later  as  dependence  on  something 
higher.  The  adult's  duty  in  regard  to  this  activity  is  chiefiy  negative — 
never  to  cast  any  reflections  upon  the  parent,  or  the  child's  religion, 
or  sense  of  duty  or  honor,  this  sacred  shrine  of  the  child's  moral  life; 
never  to  ask  a  child  to  act  contrary  to  his  conscience  or  to  do  a  thing 
contrary  to  his  sense  of  honor. 

"Such  are  some  of  the  fundamental  teachings  of  mental  hygiene. 
"We  attempt  to  give  the  feeble-minded  and  the  mentally  disordered  the 
benefit  of  them.  We  should  not  deprive  normal  children  of  the  same 
mental  training. 

"To  state  these  principles  is  easy,  to  practice  them  infinitely  difficult, 
and,  to  train  children  to  practice  them,  a  task  for  the  greatest  artist. 
For  a  teacher  to  do  this,  demands  more  than  constant  care  and  effort; 
it  requires  constant  self-repression;  for  healthful  mental  and  moral 
fiber  is  built  up  by  a  child's  own  effort,  not  by  the  activity  of  adults. 
It  requires  suggestion  on  the  part  of  the  latter  rather  than  demon- 
stration, example  rather  than  exhortation,  sympathetic  guidance  rather 
than  blame,  and  in  general,  training  rather  than  talk. 

"The  child  who  has  normal  habits  of  reaction  to  his  impulses  and 
feelings,  who  has  many  interests  and  the  power  of  self-control  fur- 
nished by  them,  the  ability  to  concentrate  attention  on  the  present, 
habits  of  orderly  association,  the  active  attitude  in  the  face  of  diffi- 


In  North  Carolina  183 

culty,  a  steadfast  purpose  for  service  and  cooperation,  and  a  sense  of 
dependence  and  unsullied  honor,  is  not  only  sane,  but  prepared  for 
happiness,  efficiency,  and  mental  health. 

"All  this  represents  the  positive  side.  If,  on  the  negative  side  thn 
obviously  bad  habits  and  unwholesome  complexes  of  association  are 
avoided,  with  reasonable  care  for  proper  alternation  of  work  and  rest, 
and  sleep  and  normal  hygiene  in  general,  we  have  the  conditions  for 
the  development  of  the  mental  health.  These  conditions  can  be  en- 
sured only  by  the  cooperation  of  the  home  and  the  school;  and  it  is 
vitally  important  that  parents  take  care  that  habits  of  health,  in  eating, 
activity  and  sleep,  be  developed  in  the  home." 

When  it  becomes  necessary  to  place  a  patient  in  the  hospital  every 
possible  effort  in  the  way  of  modern  theraputic  measures  such  as  hydro- 
therapy, psychotherapy  and  occupational  therapy  should  be  adapted  to 
promote  his  speedy  recovery  and  return  to  society.  But  it  must  be 
borne  in  mind  that  our  work  is  not  done  with  his  discharge  from  the 
hospital.  It  must  be  remembered  that  the  class  of  patients  whom  we 
care  for  are  largely  from  among  the  poor,  whom  the  economic  stresses 
and  strain  fall  upon  heaviest,  and  that  the  likelihood  of  a  subsequent 
attack  must  be  taken  into  consideration  and  guarded  against  by  after- 
care. A  practical  and  sorely  needed  philanthrophy  lies  in  giving  assist- 
ance and  encouragement  to  indigent  and  friendless  persons  dismissed 
from  the  hospital  as  recovered  or  improved.  Such  assistance  would  en- 
able them  to  get  a  fresh  start  in  the  outside  world.  This  form  of  help  is 
now  being  given  in  a  number  of  other  states  and  their  results  prove 
conclusively  its  desirability  as  an  important  item  in  any  comprehen- 
sive program  for  the  prevention  of  mental  diseases.  Unfortunately, 
mental  disease  is  very  prone  to  recur  and  if  after-care  of  recovered 
patient  can  avert  even  a  small  proportion  of  subsequent  attacks,  its 
value  is  demonstrated. 


184  County  Government 


Readings  in  County  Government  and  County  Affairs 

Department  Library,  Rural  Economics  and  Sociology,  University  of 
North  Carolina 

The  County  in  General 

The  County — H.  S.  Gilbertson.  National  Short  Ballot  Organization. 
1917.     pp.  297. 

Local  Government  in  Counties,  Towns  and  Villages — John  A.  Fairlie, 
Ph.D.     The  Century  Co.     1914.     pp.  279. 

Documents  on  County  Government — ^Index.  The  National  Short  Bal- 
lot Organization.     1913.     pp.  16. 

First  Conference  for  Better  County  Government  in  New  York  State. 
1914.     pp.  86. 

Conference  for  the  Study  and  Reform  of  County  Government — New 
York  Ballot  Organization.  1913.  pp.  28.  Second  Meeting,  pp.  21. 
Third  Meeting,    pp.  22. 

Milwaukee  County  Government,     pp.  19. 

Report  of  the  City-County  Committee  of  the  American  Political 
Science  Association — Clyde  Lyndon  King.     1914.    pp.  11. 

Syllabus  of  Home-County  Club  Studies — University  of  North  Caro- 
lina.    1914.     pp.  43. 

Better  County  Government  in  New  York  State — Otho  G.  Cartwright, 
Secretary.     White  Plains,  New  York.     1916.     pp.  111. 

County  Government  in  Texas — Herman  G.  James,  J.D.  Ph.D.  Uni- 
versity of  Texas  Bulletin,  Austin,  Texas.     1917.     pp.  118. 

Local  Study-Clubs:  Essays  at  Citizenship — Bulletin  No.  25.  Exten- 
sion Series,  University  of  North  Carolina.     1917.     pp.  70. 

The  County  System  of  Connecticut — Albert  McClellan  Mathewson. 
New  Haven.     1917.     pp.  10. 

County  Government  and  County  Affairs — University  of  North  Caro- 
lina Extension  Circular  No.  3.     1917.     pp.  4. 

Civil  Government,  State  and  Federal — Miller-Horner.  Chapter  VI, 
The  County.     Benj.  H.  Sanborn  &  Co.     1910.    pp.  23-38. 

Actual  Government  as  Applied  Under  American  Conditions — Albert 
Bushnell  Hart,  LL.D.  Chapter  X,  The  County  System.  Longmans, 
Green  and  Company.     1913.     pp.  174-176. 

The  Principles  of  the  Administrative  Law — Frank  J.  Goodnow,  LL.D. 
Chapter  III,  The  County.     G.  P.  Putnam's  Sons.     1905.     pp.  189-195. 

Training  for  Citizenship — Joseph  Warren  Smith,  A.M.  Chapter  XXII, 
The  County.  Chapter  XXVI,  The  County  Courts.  Longmans,  Green 
and  Company.     1915.     pp.  162-168  and  185-197. 


•^ 


In  ISToRTH  Carolina  185 

The  Westchester  County  Research  Bureau— White  Plains,  N.  Y.    pp.  8. 

A  Brief  Report  of  the  Organization,  Activities  and  Achievements  of 
the  Westchester  County  Research  Bureau.     1910-13.    pp.  15. 

The  Alameda  County  Plan— Tax  Association  of  Alameda  County, 
California.     1913.    pp.  24. 

County  Government  in  Colonial  North  Carolina — North  Carolina 
Historical  Society.     Hamilton-Wagstaff.     1911.     pp.  39. 

County  Government  in  Delaware  County,  Pennsylvania — Walter 
Rhoads  White.     The  People's  Rights  Association.     1917.     pp.  20. 

Reorganization  of  County  Government  in  Virginia — LeRoy  Hodges. 
Southern  Commercial  Congress.     1915.    pp.  4. 

_^  County  Offices  and  Officers 

^  The  Office  of  the  Clerk  of  the  Circuit  Court  and  the  Office  of  the 
Clerk  of  the  Superior  Court  of  Cook  County,  Illinois — Report  prepared 
for  the  Judges  of  the  Circuit  Court  by  the  Bureau  of  Efficiency.  1912. 
pp.  22. 

The  Office  of  County  Treasurer  of  Cook  County,  Illinois — Report  pre- 
pared by  the  Bureau  of  Efficiency.    1913.    pp.  67. 
■^         The  Judges  and  the  County  Fee   System — Chicago   Bureau   of   Effi- 
ciency.    1911.     pp.  10. 

A   Second   Plea   for   Publicity   in   the   Office   of   County   Treasurer — 
Chicago  Bureau  of  Efficiency.     1914.     pp.  10. 
>>         Putting   Character  into   the   Counties — Walter   A.   Dyer.     Reprinted 

from  The  World's  Work,  September,  1915.     pp.  16. 
'■^       Method  and  Cost  of  Collecting  Taxes  in  Westchester  County — West- 
chester County  Research  Bureau,  N.  Y.     1911.     pp.  71. 

The  Sheriff's  Office — ^.The  Municipal  Association  of  Cleveland.  1912. 
pp.  26. 

Report  on  Office  of  County  Recorder — Alameda  Tax  Association. 
1912. 

Report  on  Coroner's  Office  and  the  Creation  of  a  Superior  Judge- 
ship— Tax  Association  of  Alameda  County.     1913.     pp.  6. 

Annual  Report  of  the  County  Auditor  and  Chairman  of  Board  of 
Commissioners — New  Hanover  County,  N.  C.     1915.     pp.  39. 

County  and  City  Consolidation 

Shall  the  City  and  County  Governments  be  Consolidated? — City  Club, 
Cincinnati.     1917.    pp.  15. 

Summary  of  a  Charter  for  a  Federated  City  and  County  Government 
for  Alameda  County  and  its  Cities — City  and  County  Government  Asso- 
ciation, California.     1916.    pp.  20. 


3 


186  County  Government 

City  and  County  Consolidation  for  Los  Angeles — Tax  Payers  Associa- 
tion,   pp.  194. 

Centralized  Government  for  Counties  and  Cities — Bulletin  28.  Tax 
Association  of  Alameda  County.  1917.    pp.  6. 

City  and  County  Federation:  A  Problem:  Its  Solution — Tax  Associa- 
tion of  Alameda  County.    Bulletin  26.     1917.     pp.  7. 

As  Others  See  Us;  Clipping  the  Wings  of  Extravagance;  Sharpening 
the  Instruments  of  Government;  Some  of  the  Benefits  That  Would 
Accrue  From  a  City  and  County  Charter — Tax  Association  of  Alameda 
County.    1916.    Leaflets,  each,  pp.  4. 

Taxes,  Costs,  Expenditnres 

County  Salaries — Westchester  County  New  York  Research  Bureau. 
1916.     pp.  20. 

Fees  and  Salaries  in  Indiana — Reports  of  State  Board  of  Accounts. 

1913,  1914,  1915-16,  1917. 

Making  the  County  Budget — Westchester  Research  Bureau.  1912. 
pp.  20. 

County  Budgets  and  Their  Construction — Otho  G.  Cartwright.  West- 
chster  Research  Bureau.     1915.     p.  12. 

County   Printing   Expenses — Westchester    County   Research   Bureau. 

1914.  pp.  23. 

Method  and  Cost  of  Collecting  Taxes  in  Westchester  County — West- 
chester County  Research  Bureau.    1911.     pp.  71. 

Again  the  Tax  Rate  or  Official  Budget-Making  Time— Tax  Associa- 
tion of  Alameda  County.     1914.     pp.  4. 

The  County  Grab  Bag:  Department  of  Weights  and  Measures — Tax 
Association  of  Alameda  County.     1917.     pp.  4. 

The  Wastefulness  and  Inefficiency  of  Governmental  Expenditures — 
M.  L.  Requa.    Tax  Association  of  Alameda  County.    1917.    pp.  11. 

Why  Not  One  Central  Purchasing  Agency  for  Alameda  County  In- 
stead of  Sixty-four? — Tax  Association  of  Alameda  County.    1914.    pp.  8. 

Reports  on  Registration  as  Conducted  by  the  Clerk  of  Alameda 
County — Tax  Association  of  Alameda  County.     1912.     pp.  20. 

Analysis  of  the  Recall  Petition  and  the  Standardization  of  Account- 
ing Systems — Tax  Association  of  Alameda  County.     1912.    pp.  6. 

Cost  of  Elections.  Report  No.  10 — Tax  Association  of  Alameda 
County.     1913.     pp.  19. 

Efficiency  in  Municipal  and  County  Government — M.  L.  Requa.  Tax 
Association  of  Alameda  County.     1914.     pp.  15. 

County  Revenues,  Expenditures  and  Public  Properties.  1913 — Bureau 
of  the  Census,  Washington,  D.  C.     1913.     pp.  338. 

Proposed  Charter  for  San  Diego  County,  California — Prepared  by  the 
Board  of  Freeholders.    1917.    pp.  30. 


In  North  Carolina  187 

Social  Agencies 

Report  on  Emergency  Hospital,  Detention  Home  and  Care  of  Indi- 
gents— Tax  Association  of  Alameda  County.     1912.     pp.  14. 
"^  Report  on  County  Infirmary  and  Infirmary  Hospital — Tax  Association 
"of  Alameda  County.     1912.    pp.  14. 

The  Treatment  and  Care  of  the  Insane  in  Pennsylvania — C.  Floyd 
Haviland,    M.D.     The    Public   Charities    Association    of    Pennsylvania, 

1915.  pp.  94. 

•~X     County  Outdoor  Relief  in  California — State  Board  of  Charities  and 
Corrections,  Sacramento.    1916.    pp.  29. 

A  Decade  of  Poor  Relief  in  Indiana — Indiana  Bulletin  of  Charities 
and  Corrections.     1906.     pp.  71-79. 

County  Charities,  Indiana  a  Century  of  Progress — Amos  W.  Eutler, 
Secretary  Board  of  State  Charities.     1916.     pp.  138-145. 
^County  Hospitals  (General) — Indiana  Bulletin  of  Charities  and  Cor- 
rections.    1917.     pp.  37-42. 

County  Poor  Expenses — Indiana  Bulletin  of  Charities  and  Correc- 
tions.    1917.     pp.  141-144. 

Thirty  Years  of  Organized  Charities — Alexander  Johnson.  An  Ad- 
dress before  the  Ohio  State  Conference  of  Charities  and  Corrections. 
1909.     pp.  5. 

First  Annual  Report  of  the  Indiana  State  Farm.    1915.    pp.  60. 

A  State  Aged  100:  Glimpses  of  Social  Progress  in  Indiana — Alex- 
ander Johnson.     1916.     pp.  20. 

Survey  of  Two  Counties;  Mental  Defectives  in  Indiana — Report  on 
the  Commission  on  Mental  Defectives  Appointed  by  Governor  Ralston. 

1916.  pp.  7-15. 

County  Infirmaries  of  Kentucky — Edward  D.  Tuthill,  Ph.D.  State 
University  Press,  Lexington,  Kentucky,     pp.  15. 

County  Welfare  Boards — Studies  in  Social  Sciences.  University  of 
Iowa  Monographs.    Bessie  A.  McClenahan,  M.A.     pp.  62-67. 

Survey  of  Social  Agencies  of  Alameda  County — Jean  Howard  Mc- 
Duffie.     Board  of  Supervisors,  Oakland,  California.     1914.     pp.  56. 

Juvenile  Reformatories  in  North  Carolina  and  the  South — Judge 
Gilbert  T.  Stephenson,  Winston-Salem,  N.  C.  Eight  chapters,  news- 
paper clippings. 

County  Jails 

Report  of  the  State  Prison  Inspector  of  Alabama — W.  H.  Oates, 
M.D.     Brown  Printing  Company,  Montgomery.     1917.     pp.  262. 

?,  County  Jails  Contrasted  in  Two  States — The  Survey.  June  16,  1917. 
pp.  262. 

'  The  High  Cost  of  County  Jail  Fees— The  Survey.  June  12,  1918. 
p.  423. 


188  County  Government 

■*     County    Jails — Hastings    H.    Hart,    LL.D. — National    Committee    on 
Prisons  and  Prison  Labor.     New  York.     1917.     pp.  14. 
/        The  Fee  and  the   County  Jail — John  B.   Orchard.     Central   Bureau 
Philadelphia  Yearly  Meeting  of  Friends,  Philadelphia.     1918.    pp.  27. 
County  Jails — Prison  Sunday.     Board  of  State  Charities  of  Indiana. 

1916.  pp.  11-13. 

County  Poor  Asylums  and  County  Jails — Twenty-Seventh  Annual 
Report  Board  of  State  Charities  of  Indiana.     1916.     pp.  138-164. 

Prison  Commission  Report — Indiana.     1904.     pp.  9. 

The  Abolition  of  the  County  Jail — Dr.  Frederick  H.  Wines,    pp.  12. 

The  Treatment  of  the  Misdemeanant — Amos  W.  Butler,  Secretary 
State  Board  of  Charities  of  Indiana,     pp.  8. 

County  Libraries 

*^  News  Notes  of  California  Libraries;   List  of  Counties  Having  Free 
Libraries — State  Printing  Office,  Sacramento.     1917.     pp.  9-10. 

An  Organization   Trip   Through   Inyo   County — California   State   Li- 
brary, Sacramento.    1917.    pp.  445-453. 
*7^  The   County   Library — Saida  Brumback   Antrim   and   Ernest   Irving 

Antrim,  Ph.D.     The  Pioneer  Press,  Van  Wert,  Ohio.     1914.     pp.  306. 
-3    The  Brumback  Library  of  Van  Wert  County,  Ohio.     Thirteenth  An- 
nual Report.     1913.     pp.  29. 

California   Free   Library   Service   to   Schools — State   Printing   Office, 
Sacramento.     1916.     pp.  20. 
'^    California  County  Free  Libraries — State  Printing  Office,  Sacramento. 

1917.  pp.  10. 

California  County  Free  Library  Law — Superintendent  State  Printing, 
Sacramento.     1913.     pp.  17. 
/        Rural   Reading  and   Township  Extension — 'Iowa  Library   Quarterly, 
''"'    Des  Moines.     1912.    pp.  193-208. 

Township  Extension  of  Libraries;  Observations  from  Experience  in 
Page  County — Iowa  Quarterly.     1910.     pp.  65-80. 

Absence  of  Library  Trustees  from  Board  Meetings — Iowa  Library 
Quarterly,  Des  Moines.     1911.     pp.  149-164. 

The  Texas  County  Free  Library  Law — News  Notes  of  California  Li- 
braries.    1917.     pp.  344-348. 

Washington  County  Free  Library  at  Hagerstown,  Maryland.  Twelfth 
Annual  Report.     1913.     pp.  21. 

A  County  Library;  and  On  the  Trail  of  the  Book  Wagon — Mary  L. 
Titcomb.  Washington  Free  Library,  Hagerstown,  Maryland.  1909. 
pp.  19. 


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